Review of Child Labour, Education and Poverty Agenda Review of Child Labour, Education and Poverty Agenda INDIA Country Report 2006 INDIA Country Report 2006INDIA Country Report 2006 Review of Child Labour, Education and Poverty AgendaACRONYMS Abbreviation APSE Annual Per Student Expenditure DIET District Institute of Educational Training DISE District Information on School Education DPEP District Primary Education Project DPIP District Poverty Initiative Programme EDI Education Development Index EFA Education For All FDIs Foreign Direct Investments GDP Gross Domestic Product GER Gross Enrolment Rate GPI Gender Parity Index ILO International Labour Organiation IPEC International Programme for Child Labour Elimination MDG Millennium Development Goal MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development MNCs Multinational Companies MPCE Monthly Per Capita Expenditure NCERT National Council for Education Research and Training NCLP National Child Labour Project NER Net Enrolment Rate NGOs Non-Governmental Organisation NIRD National Institute of rural Development NPE National Policy on Education NSSO National Sample Survey Organisation ODA Official Development Assistance PTR Pupil Teacher Ration SCR Student Classroom Ratio SERP Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan UN United Nations US United States of America UTs Union Territories iii FOREWORD The Global March against Child Labour, since its inception has been thriving upon twin missions i.e. elimination of child labour and guaranteeing good quality free education for all children as two sides of the same coin. One cannot be achieved without the other. These too have to be addressed in the broader context of socio-economic justice or poverty. It was our endeavour to demolish the age-old myth that poverty causes and perpetuates child labour and illiteracy. The fact is the other way round. Illiteracy, child labour and poverty form a classic triangular 'chicken & egg' relation. Therefore coherence in policy, coordination amongst institutions and convergence in programs is necessary for attaining sustainable development and justice. It would be an over simplification, albeit romantic and even radical to propagate that opening of schools alone can solve such complex problems of poverty and child labour including slavery and trafficking. In the same manner those who only believe in economic growth and enforcement of legislation, are incomplete in their approach. As a people's movement Global March has been campaigning and lobbying at all levels to build a consensus on Triangular Paradigm of poverty alleviation, eradication of child labour and education for all. Though child labour does not figure in the much talked about Millennium Development Goals or the Dakar Framework of Action, half of these goals cannot be realized without paying heed to these interlinkages and coherence. The activism and advocacy work has to be substantiated with academic and scientific research and studies, not only for us to understand the complexities of these issues but to influence the stereotyped thinking of the planners and policy makers. The two present case studies on India and Bangladesh is a small step towards that direction. India has already missed the targets of gender parity and covering all children aged 6-14 years in schools by year 2005. The report informs that the children aged 6-14 were not attending any educational institutions in India, which were higher than the education department's estimates of 25 million. It is shameful that the magnitude of child labour has increased from 11.59 million in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001 (Census 2001). It requires an urgent multi-pronged approach and determined efforts on part of all, including governments, ministries, other implementing agencies, political parties and civil society to end the scourge of child labour. It is my wish and hope that this will prove to be a starting point for further studies at international, national and regional levels and the outcome could help in shaping inter-governmental, governmental and nongovernmental policies. I congratulate the team of researchers comprising of Dr. Sudhanshu Joshi, Dr. Bupinder Zutshi and Mr. Alok Vajpeyi on the splendid work done. Kailash Satyarthi Chairperson Global March Against Child LabouriiiPREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The three key processes affecting the future of the world, in particular our children are elimination of child labour, Education for All and poverty alleviation. A multi-dimensional approach consisting of awareness building and consciousness raising, community participation, alternative and viable social and economic rehabilitation, enforcement of national and international legal instruments in relation to children and other similar plans, is needed for linking the elimination of child labour with overall poverty alleviation and education strategies. Thus it is imperative that there is a synergy in policy planning and programmes that address these three vital issues that affect the lives of millions of children for a sustainable development. The present study aims to identify and critically examine the current programmes, action plans and interventions of government of India, United Nations and other international donor agencies, NGOs and civil society organizations towards child labour elimination and achieving Education for All goals in India. It also evaluates the actual implementation results for addressing the issues of child labour, education and poverty alleviation. The focus of the study is to examine the results based on information collected from various government sources, UN and other international studies as well as through a field study in the representative sample areas across the country. An attempt has been made to identify gaps between the policy, programmes and actual implementation results in the field areas, in order to promote better cooperation and understanding between policy planners, children and advocacy groups working on children's behalf. We acknowledge the financial support provided by NOVIB-Oxfam Netherlands and Bread for the World for sponsoring the study report. A large number of institutions and individuals have extended guidance, support, encouragement and cooperation during the period of this research. We wish to acknowledge our sincere gratitude and thanks to the following institutions and individuals. Department of Primary Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi, Ministry of Labour, Government of India, State Project Directors of Education from Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, Society for Elimination of Rural PovertyHyderabad, Bachpan Bachao Andolan, M.V. Foundation, National Institute of Rural Development Mr. Anjani Kumar Singh (State Project Director- DPEP and SSA, Bihar), Ms. Neelam Soniwala (State Project Director- DPEP and SSA, Madhya Pradesh), Shri. K. Candramouli (State Project Director- DPEP and SSA, Andhra Pradesh), Dr. Satyanarayana (Additional State Project director- DPEP and SSA, Andhra Pradesh), A. Babji (SERP), Dr. Mondira Dutta ( JNU), G.P. Wesley (Action for Child), Mr. Krishnamoorthy from ILO-Hyderabad, Mazher Hussain (COVA), Venkata Reddy from M.V. Foundation, K. Suman Chandra from NIRD, Moin Khan, Principal, DIET, Gaya District- Bihar, Mr. Jain, DPC, Raisen district, Neelam, APC, Rangareddi district, Ajay Singh and Vithal Rao from BBA and SACCS, several field based NGOs , teachers, children and parents of the children who were approached for field survey. Anish Kapoor, P.P. Tripathi, and Puspahas for conducting field work in the study area. Vijay Singh for design and graphics in the report. Ipshita Zutshi for helping in design of the report. Sudhanshu Joshi Bupinder Zutshi Alok Vajpeyi Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ ivPage Acronyms i Foreword ii Preface and Acknowledgment iv Executive Summary vi-vii I Primary and Elementary Education 1-11 Ÿ Context and Introduction 1 Ÿ UEE Progress Report 2 Ÿ Policy and Programmes 3 Ÿ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 3 Ÿ Elementary Education Structure 5 Ÿ Budget Allocation 5 Ÿ Access, Reach and Equity 5 Ÿ Enrolments 6 Ÿ Gross Enrolment Ratio and Net Enrolment Ratio 7 Ÿ Gender Parity Index 8 Ÿ Infrastructure 8 Ÿ Quality of education 9 Ÿ Dropout Rates 10 Ÿ Private Expenditure 11 Ÿ Correlation Coefficient 11 II Child Labour 12-17 Ÿ Magnitude 12 Ÿ Regional Patterns 12 Ÿ Magnitude of Out-of-school Children 13 Ÿ Work activities 14 Ÿ Case Study of Hybrid Cotton Seed 14 Ÿ Child Labour Elimination : Government Policy 16 ú National Child Labour Policy 16 Ÿ International Response 17 ú The World Bank Response 17 Ÿ NGOs and Civil Society Response 17 III Poverty Situation 18-19 IV Child Labour- Human Deprivation Linkages 20-22 V Summing up, Results and Recommendation 23-26 Ÿ Elementary Education Issues 23 Ÿ Child Labour Issues 24 Ÿ Poverty, labour force and unemployment 25 Ÿ Child Labour-Human Deprivation Linkages 25 Ÿ Recommendations 25 ú International Community 25 ú Government of India 26 Tables and Annexure 27-31 References and Bibliography 32-36 CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND MAPS Page Section I SSA Financial Share In US $ Million 4 SSA Budget Headwise 4 Education Budgetary Expenses 5 Annual Per Student Exp. on Ele. Education 2004 5 Primary Schools Per Village 6 Children Per School (5-14Years) 6 Enrollment in Primary School- 2004 7 Enrollment in Middle School-2004 7 Gross Enrollment Ratio in Primary 7 Gross Enrollment in Middle School-2004 7 GER and NER - 2004 7 Gender Parity Index- 2004 8 Gender Parity Index Of School 8 Insfrastructure 9 Student Classroom Ratio-2004 9 Quality Indicators 10 Percent Boys / Girls Attendance Percent Male/ Female Teachers Trained 10 Droupout Rates Class 1-V 11 Droupout Rate Class VI-VIII 11 Annual Private Expenditure 11 Compomnent Wise Private Expenditure 11 Section II Child LABOUR 12 Child Workers 12 Percent Child Workers ( Aged 5-14 Years)-2001 13 Percent Children Not attending School - 2001 13 Percent Children Out of School 13 Child Labour Economic Activities 1991 14 Section III Population Below Poverty Line 18 Monthly PerCapita Consumer Expenditure 18 Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure in Rs. 19 Growth In Employment 19 Percent Labour Force 19 Section IV Food Security and School Enrolment and Dropout Rates 21 Percent Child Labour 21 Poverty Rates and Percent Child Workers 2000 and 2001 21 Poverty Rates and Percent Children Out of Schools 21 Problems If Child Stops Work (Parents Response) 21 Reasons for Child Labour 21 Maps Poverty Incidence (Percent Population) 20 Percent Children our of school (6-11 years) 20Ÿ India has already missed the gender parity target and target of covering all children aged 6-14 years in schools by 2005. Access, reach and gender parity deficit in schooling is observed, in the most populated states of Bihar, Uttar Padesh, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Rajasthan. Significantly these states also have concentration of 66 percent of poverty incidence rates ( Planning Commission data) Ÿ Sixty-five million children aged 6-14 years were not attending any educational institutions in India, (Census- 2001, released in 2005) which were much higher than the education department estimates of 25 million children (MHRD- 2002 data). This has made the entire claim of the education plans under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All) out of sync with the reality. It is therefore important that the government brings out a new realistic road map addressing 65 million out of school children instead of the 25 million on which the road map was developed earlier. Ÿ Even the official data has admitted that the magnitude of child labour has increased from 11.59 million in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001 (Census 2001). However unofficial sources claim between 25 to 30 million child workers, as significant number of child workers in domestic and agriculture sector are not covered in the census. The government road map (under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan-plan of action/ National Child Labour Project/ INDUS Project) does not address effectively even these 12.66 million child labourer. Ÿ According to the Planning Commission 260 million people (26% of population) still live below the poverty line in India. Eighty three percent of these poor people are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam. Significantly 84 percent of Out-of-school children (6-11 years-NSSO 55th Round, 1999-2000) and 72 percent of child workers aged 5-14 years (Official Census data-2001) are also concentrated in these eight states. A close association (positive Correlation of 0.7325 and 0.4563) was found between Poverty incidence with percent out-of-school children and Percent child workers respectively among the states of India. Ÿ Multivariate analysis with support from the empirical data depicts education deprivation of the child and parents, food deficit at home, unemployment status of any family member for more than 6 months and families with no or less land explained 87 percent of child labour presence. Ÿ The empirical study reflected households with “Always food deficit at home” (proxy indicator for poverty) also recoded high proportion of child workers, out of school children and dropout rates from schools as compared to the households having “Break-Even or Surplus food at homes”. Ÿ The response of the parents for sending children to work and “problems faced by parent if child stops work” again reinforces the poverty as one of the major cause for sending children to work. About 70% and 50% parental responses indicate that children are pushed to work in order to maintain income levels for sustenance and survival of the families, in the absence of appropriate wages for adults and seasonality of work respectively. This supports the assertion that poverty is the key reason for perpetuation of child labor. However on the other hand child labor is the primary cause of poverty, as it pushes children early to premature work thereby denying children the opportunity to acquire the education and skills they need to obtain decent work and incomes as adults. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Even the latest ILO study reveals that children only earn 20 percent income of an adult earning, while cost-benefit analysis for educating a child works out seven times returns. Ÿ The government policy on child labour elimination has very little synergy and coordination at the grassroots level with other welfare and poverty alleviation programmes. Moreover, the scale of coverage of both the NCLP and the INDUS-USDOL project and the magnitude of child labour are mismatch and it needs substantial scaling up. Ÿ The prosecution and conviction rates in contravention of Child Labour Act-1986 were few, pointing out poor implementation of the Act, due to administrative lapses and lacunae in the Act. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY viŸ Infrastructure and quality input and output indicators were much below the minimum standards in majority of schools in India, especially in most populated states. The SSA experiment of recruiting parateachers (teachers without adequate qualification and training) to save financial allocations for salaries and fill the gap of student/teacher ratio will affect quality component for EFA adversely. Ÿ· The education budget was 4.2% of the total GDP in 2003, which is still low in view of the expected norm of 6 percent of GDP. Public expenditure per annum per student was US$ 44, which works out as 8.5 percent of per capita GDP. This is lower than the average of 10-12 percent of per capita GDP among low-income countries. Ÿ The SSA programme (Indian Action Plan for EFA) has stipulated 33 per cent grants for civil works across the country, which seems to be very low in the case of some states like; Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa, as the existing infrastructure in terms of buildings and classrooms are few. The new expected enrolments will increase student/ classroom ratio tremendously in these states. Ÿ Improved access, infrastructure development, recruitment of lady teachers and availability of trained teachers are positively correlated with better NER, GPI, retention rates and attendance rates of students. Hence more investments needs in these aspects. Ÿ Shortage of lady teachers has reflected in lower Gender Parity Enrolment Rates in the state of Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Ÿ Lack of toilet facilities in schools, especially separate toilet services for girls have affected GPI rates, as states with lesser GPI rates also recorded less percent of schools with toilet facilities. The point was further reinforced through the field observations. Ÿ On an average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of children aged 10-14 years drop-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family livelihoods. The empirical field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14 years. Ÿ Currently very little inputs are provided by the community in plan formulations and supervision. Thus community ownership of schools is not visible. Recommendation Ÿ MDGs and child labor are intimately linked. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Indeed, it is poverty associated with social injustice and social exclusion that is most closely related to child labor. The absence of child labor from the MDG framework is a regrettable omission that needs to be corrected with a sense of urgency if the intent is to achieve the MDGs. Ÿ Scaling up of public investments, capacity building, domestic resource mobilization, and official development assistance to achieve EFA goals within the target period and identify more “fast track” countries for scale up of support. Ÿ Incorporate multi-pronged approach by crafting effective synergy and coordination process between central and state governments departments towards child labour elimination efforts as the elimination of child labour requires multi pronged strategy of making schools accessible, providing quality education in schools, attacking food deficit scenario at home through poverty alleviation programmes and providing employment to adults. Ÿ Ratify ILO Convention No. 138 concerning the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, ILO Convention No. 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour. vii1 Context and Introduction: The issue of child labour cuts across policy boundaries and is cause and consequence of poverty, displacements, illiteracy and adult unemployment. Extreme forms of poverty play a crucial role in encouraging child labour. This implies that child labour cannot be addressed in isolation. Among factors contributing to child labour are rapid population growth, adult unemployment, bad working conditions, lack of minimum wages, exploitation of workers, low standard of living, low quality of education, lack of legal provisions and enforcement, low capacity of institutions, gender discrimination, conceptual thinking about childhood, etc. One or more of the above contribute to the large numbers of children working under exploitative or hazardous conditions; Several studies have recognized child labour connections with human deprivation- illiteracy, food insecurity, distress displacements, gender inequity, social and human underdevelopment, conflict situation and insecurity and poor governance. SECTION I: PRIMARY AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONThe Millennium Development Goals (MDG), drawn from the United Nations Millennium Declaration, was a seminal event in the history of the United Nations. It constituted an unprecedented promise by world leaders to address, as a single package of peace, security, development, human rights and fundamental freedoms. The world leaders agreed to a set of measurable, time-bound targets known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) to address crippling poverty and its devastating consequences on increasing child labour, education deprivation and overall human welfare. The MDG goals of poverty alleviation, universal education, gender equality and women empowerment are interlinked in a complex and cross sector relationships with child labour problem. Spurred on by the economic reforms since 1991, India has surged as a significant economic power in the global economy. Globalization and Structural Adjustment Programmes has given rise to a vibrant middle class populations mostly dwelling in towns and cities. A brand new generation of executives, businessmen and industrialists has begun to compete in the global market. Cell centers, information and communication technology (ICT) companies, business process outsourcing (BPO) firms, and premier educational institutions have not only begun to offer world-class services, but have also boosted up high rates of service exports. India seems to be surging ahead with policies of generating economic growth with a per capita 1 GDP of US$ 515. The maturing of democratic processes and political consensus among major political forces has given positive signal to multinational companies (MNCs) and created conducive condition for direct foreign investments (FDIs) which has helped in linking Indian economy with the global economy. Unfortunately the India's unfolding economic success is not reaching to the poor. The agenda of attaining the MDG still remain elusive for the majority of developing and under- 2 developed countries including India. . With just 10 years to go to attain the MDG relating to poverty, universalization of education, gender parity empowerment and reducing child mortality rates, the projections derived from several studies indicate mixed results and India is likely to fall behind the targets in terms of majority of MDG goals related to social 3 development. According to official (Planning Commission) figures, over 260 million people (26% population), still live below the country's 4 poverty line. Seventy five per cent of these were dwelling in rural areas. The newly legislated National Rural Employment 5 Guarantee Act , if implemented conscientiously, can bolster the effort to banish hunger-poverty to some extent. However the goal of universal education might seem a relatively straightforward goal but it has proven as difficult as any as it is linked with quality of education, elimination of child labour, poverty alleviation programmes, peace and security and above all good governance. Universal Elementary Education: Progress Report: Progress Report on EFA in India: Ÿ “It will be very difficult to meet the government's goal of having all children in India enrolled in primary schools and completing t h e f u l l c o u r s e o f p r i ma r y schooling by 2007. The goal of getting all children aged 6-14 years to complete eight years of schooling by 2010 would appear 6 to be even more challenging”. (The World Bank Report-2004) Ÿ Initiative had been “…isolated and 7 weak” , and “…there has never been a solid framework for action supporting the Initiative, nor has there been a focus for action. A d d i t i o n a l l y t h e r e we r e few negative consequences for not 8 a c t i ve l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g ” . ( E - 9 Initiative) th Ÿ India ranked 100 , (EDI value 0.741), out of 121 countries rated in Education development Index. It has improved EDI value from 0.696 in 2005 to 0.741 in 2006, depicting marginal improvement 9 during last one year. It ranked th rd 58 in total primary NER, 103 in rd adult literacy rate, 103 in gender th related EFA index and 111 in surv i val rate to g rade V. I t projected that India will fail to meet the 2015 Dakar Framework 1 0 t a r g e t . ( U N E S C O , E FA Monitoring Report 2006) Ÿ India's rank was 8th in terms of complete basic education, 7th in terms of state action for EFA programmes, 6th in terms of quality inputs, 9th in terms of gender equity and 5th in terms of overall equity among the 14 developing countries from Asia 11 Pacific. ( The Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education and Global Campaign for Education Report- 2005) 2Policy and programmes: SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN: The Ministry of Human Resource Development Departments of primary and elementary education and literacy at the centre, and the Ministry of Education- Department of primary education at the state/ UTs level are responsible for elementary education. Major policies adopted were: National Policy of Education (NPE) in 1986: It envisaged, Universal access and enrolment, Universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and Substantial improvement in the quality of education. Programme of Action (POA) for universal elementary education in 1990. It resulted in shifting education sector from state jurisdiction to concurrent jurisdiction, which paved the way for several centrally sponsored schemes (CSSs) with financial allocations from central government. Some of the CSSs in 12 13 operation were Operation Blackboard , District Primary Education Programmes , Mid-day meal 14 15 scheme/ National programme for nutritional support to primary education , Teachers education , 16 17 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidhalaya and Janshala programmes. Adoption of Free and Compulsory Education Bill under Article 21-A. The bill is in the drafting stage and is likely to be placed in the parliament for approval by the end of December 2005. The programmes and interventions for elementary education in the tenth plan are Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), Teacher Education Programme and Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) The SSA is centrally sponsored scheme for universal elementary education to achieve Dakar Education for All goals. Under the SSA, government of India is committed to provide financial allocation to the states/ UTs as per the approved district plans prepared after a thorough base line survey conducted for the identification of out-of-school children. A total of US$ 3500 million have been stipulated for the SSA project, 18 . with contribution from central government, international agencies and state/UTs governments (Fig 1) The funds have been stipulated under different heads to cover all major components of SSA (Fig 2). The assistance under the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is on an 85:15 sharing arrangement between the Central Government and the State Government during the Ninth Plan (1997-2002), at 75:25 during the 19 Tenth Plan (2002-07), and at 50:50 thereafter . In addition the states and UTs will continue to provide financial allocations under the already existing state budgets for elementary education. Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Goals Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ All children in school, EGS / AIS School by 2003; All children to complete five years of primary schooling by 2007; All children complete eight years of schooling by 2010; Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life; Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010 Universal retention by 2010 3SSA Financial Share In US $ Million 1579 500 346 200 875 Indian Central Government IDA UK Dfid European Commission Local State Grants Fig. 1 SSA Budget Headwise 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Civil Works Maintenance Intervention books for girls Innovative Action School Grant TLE BRC Training Salaries Management Others Percent Fig. 2 SSA- Main Features and Broad Strategies Ÿ SSA is Government of India programme launched in 2001 for achievement of (UEE) in a time bound manner in a mission mode. It covers 193 million children, 3.3 million teachers and nearly 1 million schools and Alternative Schools spread over 1.1 million habitations in 28 States and 7 Union Territories. Ÿ SSA is an integrated, comprehensive scheme in partnership with State Governments, Local Self Governments, the community and the civil society. Its aim is to universalize elementary education by community ownership of the school system, active involvement of local self governments and grassroots level structures. Ÿ It aims to provide useful and quality elementary education to all children in the 6 -14 age group by 2010 through existing primary and upper primary school structure supplemented by: a. National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL): The programmes are for educationally backward blocks (currently 2656 block). It envisages starting girl-child friendly schools for under privileged/ disadvantaged girls. It envisages free text books, uniform and other stationery for girls. b. Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Education (EGS & AIE) is specially designed for areas of school-less habitations and out-of-school children. The scheme supports flexible strategies through bridge courses, residential camps, drop-in centers, summer camps, remedial coaching, etc. with the aim of mainstreaming them in the primary/ elementary schools after the initial schooling in EGS/ AIS schooling. Ÿ Institutional reforms in the states to improve efficiency of the delivery system Ÿ Sustainable financing Ÿ Community ownership of school based interventions through effective decentralization. Ÿ Institutional capacity building for improvement in quality. Ÿ Community based monitoring with full transparency in all aspects of implementation Ÿ Community based approach to planning with habitation as a unit of planning. Ÿ Special focus on girls, scheduled caste (SC) /scheduled tribes (ST) working children, urban deprived children, children with special needs, children in marginalized families and children in hardest to reach groups. Ÿ Thrust on quality and making education relevant. Ÿ Recognition of the critical role of the teacher and focus on the human resource development needs of teachers. Ÿ Preparation of District Elementary Education Plans reflecting all governmental and nongovernmental investments. Broad Strategies 4Elementary Education Structure: Budgetary Allocations: Access, Reach and equity: The school education structure in India constitutes the primary stage (Class I-V), elementary/upper primary stage (Class VI-VIII) and high and higher secondary stage (Class IX-XII). A uniform structure of school education, based on minimum levels of learning curriculum, identified by the National Council of Education and Research Training (NCERT) at each class level, up to the 10+2 system has been adopted by all the States (29) and Union Territories (UTs 7) of India. Child aged 6 years in enrolled in class-I Public expenditures on education, both as a percentage of GDP and as a percentage of total government expenditure, have shown insignificant increase up to 1990s, as the states and Union Territories ( UTs) were primarily responsible for education sector. However the implementation of centrally sponsored educational schemes after 1990 increased budgetary allocations for education sector to over 4 percent of total GDP in 2001-02 (Fig 3). This compares favorably with the low-income countries' average of 3 percent, although it falls short of India's own target of 6 percent by the end of Ninth plan. As a percentage of total government expenditure, education expenditure increased from about 8 percent to about 14.6 percent over this period; the latter is on the lower side of the range of public education spending of low-income countries. Average spending per student is about $44, or 8.5 percent of per capita GDP, which is lower than the average of 10- 12 percent of per capita GDP among low-income countries. There is much variation across states. Regional variations exist in per student spending in India. It ranges from $27 in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal to $179 in Goa. States which have high per student spending are Goa, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. Very low student expenditure was in West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, 20 Bihar, Karnataka, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. All these states have high proportion of out-of-school children as well as high magnitude and proportion of child labour. (Fig 4). Between 1950-51 and 2003, the number of primary schools in India increased more than three-fold, from about 210,000 to a little over 664,040 schools and the number of upper primary schools has increased by almost 15 times from 13,600 to 219,626 schools. According to the District Information on School Education (DISE- 2004) there were 931,471 primary and upper primary schools in India. More than 95 India Education Budgetary Expenses (1951 to 2002) 0 5 10 15 20 1951-52 1970-71 1990-91 2000- 2001 2001- 2002 Percent Share of EducationExpenditure Share of Education Expenditure to GDP Fig. 3 India and States Annual Per Student Expenditure on Elementary Education - 2004 68 31.5 42 32 31 27 31 30 28 32 26 29 27 33 25 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 H.P Gujrat Kerala Tamil Nadu Assam Maharashtra Haryana Karnataka Rajasthan Orrisa M.P U.P A.P Bihar West Bengal Figures in US $ Fig. 4 5 Source: MHRD21 , percent population has access to primary education within a distance of one kms. however several mountainous regions and tribal areas lack access to primary schools even within the distance of 2 to 3 22 kilometers. In spite of phenomenal increase in the number of primary and elementary schools a significant regional variation still exist in the access of school. The increase in number of schools is being outpaced by increase in the number of habitations and the school going child population. Average number of schools per village was 1.15, however school per village varied from 0.60 in case of Jharkhand to 2.88 for Tripura. The states with less than one primary school per village were in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Chattisgarh, Bihar and Uttranchal (Fig. 5) 23 The child population threshold (Available number of children, whether enrolled or out-of-school, aged 6- 14 years) per primary and upper primary school was 242 for the country. Among the large states it was highest for Bihar (442), Uttar Pradesh (314), West Bengal (297), and Jharkhand (286). However Kerala and 24 Haryana also recorded high child population threshold, but for different reasons A significant proportion of children are still out-of-schools in the identified large states, hence the enrolment drive under the SSA will put more pressure on the existing schools in the states. Thus additional schools and classrooms need to be constructed in the deficit states to attain the target of the SSA and provide comfortable student/ classroom ratio in these states. (Fig 6). (Refer Table 1) Enrolment in primary level of education has increased six times from 19.2 million to 113.9 million during 1950-51 to 2001-2002. The increase in case of girl enrolment had been ten times from 5.4 million in 1950- 51 to 52 million in 2002 (Fig 7 and 8). The DISE-2004 data indicates that 142 million children were 25 enrolled in primary and upper primary schools throughout the country. 26 The Gross enrollment rate (GER) in primary education was mere 43% in 1950-51 and it reached 96 percent in 2003-04. However GER in upper primary stage continues to be as low as 60%, thereby indicating lower retention rates and significant drop-out rates from class I to class VIII (Fig 9 and 10). Gross primary enrollment rates varied from a low of 65% in Uttar Pradesh to a high of 110 % for Chattisgarh in 2004. Thus there exists inequity in GER across the states especially in case of four major populated states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Significantly these states also have high concentration of incidence of poverty (40 percent) and out of school children (39.7 percent). Enrollments: Fig. 5 Primary Schools Per Village 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Uttar Pradesh W. Bengal Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Punjab Orissa Maharashtra M.P. Kerela Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Chhatisgarh Andhra Pradesh Bihar Assam Fig. 6 Children Per School (5-14Years) 0 100 200 300 400 500 Uttar Pradesh W. Bengal Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Punjab Orissa Maharashtra M.P. Kerela Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Chhatisgarh Andhra Pradesh Bihar Assam 6 Source: DISE-NIEPA 2004 Source: DISE-NIEPA 2004Fig. 8 India Enrollment in Middle School-1950-2002 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* Years E n r o l ml e n t i n M i lli o n Middle Boys Middle Girls Middle Total India Gross Enrollment Ratio in Primary School-2004 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000- 2001* 2001- 2002* 2003-04 R a t i o Primary Boys Primary Girls Primary Total GER and NER - 2004 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Uttar Pradesh W. Bengal Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Orissa Maharashtra M.P. Kerela Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Chhatisgarh Andhra Pradesh Bihar Assam GER NER India Enrollment in Primary School- 1950-2002 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* years E n r o l m l e n t i n m i l l i o n Primary Boys Primary Girls Primary Total Fig. 7 Fig. 9 India Gross Enrollment in Middle School-2004 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1950- 51 1970- 71 1990- 91 2000- 2001* 2001- 2002* 2003- 04 Ratio Boys Girls Total Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Net Enrollment Rate: 27 th The Net enrollment rate data (NER) available from the 55 round of the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) for the year 1999-2000 indicates that the NER at the primary stage for 6-11 years was 28 78% and there existed significant regional variation in the NER. However the DISE-2004 data depicts NER of 73 per cent for primary level and 60 per cent in upper primary stage. The NER was low in case of most populated states of Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand and 7 Source: MHRD Source: MHRD Source: MHRD Source: MHRD Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004Gender Parity Index- 2004 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Uttar Pradesh W. Bengal Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Punjab Orissa Maharashtra M.P. Kerela Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Chhatisgarh Andhra Pradesh Bihar Assam India GPI India Gender Parity Index Of School Enrollment-2004 0.41 0.63 0.75 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.22 0.45 0.61 0.75 0.77 0.79 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000- 2001* 2001- 2002* 2003- 2004 Index Primary Upper Primary Rajasthan. Thus in spite of the SSA in-operation since 2002, not much dent has been made to increase age appropriate child enrolments. The NER reflects a close association with the most poverty states and states with high child labour and out-of-school children as in case of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand. (Fig 11) The overall gender parity enrolment index was 0.93 according to the DISE-2004 data. The data indicates that India has made impressive gains in reducing the male-female gap in the gross primary enrollment rate in the last fifty years. The gender gap in GER narrowed down between 1950 and 2004, as the GER for girls rose from 25% to 87 %, while it rose from 65% to 105% for boys. However regional variation still persist as GPI is greatest in Bihar, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, where the gross primary enrollment rate for females is about two-thirds or less than that for males. On the other hand, there is parity or near-parity between male and female gross primary 29 enrollment rates in Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim and Kerala. (Fig 12 and 13) One of the factors affecting the GPI is the proportion of lady teachers in the schools, due to prevailing social and cultural consideration. The DISE-2004 data point out glaring gender gap, as percent lady teachers were very low in Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, west Bengal, Chattisgarh and Orissa and ( 17 to 31%). On the other hand states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu had high proportion of lady teachers (68-78%). States with lower GPI had also lower per cent of lady teachers. Shortage of lady teachers has reflected in lower Gender Parity Enrolment Rates in the state of Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. This supports the requirement of recruiting lady teachers to improve the GPI. One of the reasons stated for low GPI in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh has been non-availability of schools near habitations, as parents don't want girls to walk longer distance and also they want lady teachers for cultural reasons. Although significant improvement has been made in GPI, yet it can be improved in the deficit states through provision of school access near habitations and recruitment of lady teachers. Inadequate infrastructure in schools has been major reason for lower enrolments and GPI. Due to initial heavy capital investment, majority of primary and elementary schools in India lack these basic Gender Parity Enrolment Index (GPI): Infrastructure: Fig. 12 Fig. 13 8 Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004 Source: MHRDInsfrastructure 0 20 40 60 80 100 Uttar Pradesh W. Bengal Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Punjab Orissa Maharashtra M.P. Kerela Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Chhatisgarh Andhra Pradesh Bihar Assam India Percent Schools DrinkingWater Toilet Student Classroom Ratio-2004 0 20 40 60 80 100 Uttar Pradesh W. Bengal Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Punjab Orissa Maharashtra M.P. Kerela Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Chhatisgarh Andhra Pradesh Bihar Assam India Students Fig. 14 Fig. 15 infrastructure facilities. In a survey conducted by Ministry of education in 1992, large proportion of primary schools in the country are devoid of permanent structures (40%), no structures (9%), black-boards (40%), drinking water (60%), library facility (70%), play grounds (53%), and toilets (89%). A significant proportion of schools (35%) have only single teacher to teach three or four different classes. Many of these centers remain without any teacher for varying periods of time. Even teachers are sub- 30 contracted for teaching work. The PROBE study found that 31% primary school did not have any 31 classrooms, while only 58% schools had two or more than two class rooms. The DISE-2004 data also indicates infrastructure deficit in terms of student/ classroom ratio (SCR) and availability of schools with drinking water and toilet facilities ( Fig 14 and 15). Several studies have pointed out close association between non-availability of toilet facilities and lower GPI. The present study again reinforces the relationship as states with lower GPI also recorded lack of toilet facilities especially separate toilet facility for girls. The visits to the schools do point out some progress in the provision of infrastructure in the schools, especially after the operation of the SSA as provision of toilets and drinking water facilities has been given priority in the SSA project. Other basic infrastructure like furniture, teaching learning equipment and electricity facility is low or more or less absent in majority of schools especially in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. Providing basic primary quality education has been one of the major goals of Dakar Education for All 32 33 declaration. The studies conducted by NCERT , Aikara and NCERT-2002, point out poor performance in learning achievements in mathematics, reading comprehension and environmental studies throughout the country. Some of the inputs required for improving the quality of education are weak especially, pupil/ teacher ratio and availability of trained teachers. The SSA programme has partly addressed this important component by strengthening the existing District Educational Training Centers (DIETs) and developing block and cluster resource centers. Specific budgetary allocations are provided for the training programmes and providing teaching-learning equipments and materials. However the recruitment of new qualified and trained teachers has taken a back seat and the SSA has opted for recruitment of parateachers (to be trained in 10-15 days) in order to save huge budgetary allocations for salary of teachers. These para-teachers are paid paltry salaries (US$ 40-45 per month). Hence quality component is being compromised in the SSA. The pupil/ teacher ratio (PTR) remained constant at 43 from 1990 to 2002 due to lower recruitments and 34 strong enrolment drive. The TPR was high for Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The Quality of Education: 9 Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004 Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004Profile of a Para Teacher Under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan- Plan of Action, states have been asked to recruit one para-teacher for every 40 new students enrolled in schools. These teachers are also referred as community volunteers, who would volunteer to teach the children at a most modest monthly remuneration of (US$ 35 to 40 per month). Minimum th qualification of these para-teachers is fixed as 10 pass. Specific priority is given for scheduled caste/ scheduled tribe and backward classes populations for recruitments. The para-teachers are recruited either by Panchyats (who have very little education experience) or by education department at the block level. After recruitments these para-teachers are given short course training of 10-15 days in the respective block/ cluster resource centers. The training covers basic attitudes required for engaging children in classes, however knowledge of providing specialized approach for learning basic required competencies are not provided through this training. proportion of trained teacher also depicts strong regional imbalances. This depicts that low premium being attached to quality of education by the government which encourages parents not to send their children to schools and instead send them for work. North east states, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had lesser trained teachers, while the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh have high proportion of trained teachers. One of the major fallout of poor quality of education and extreme poverty of families is higher push- 35 out/drop-out rates. The dropout rates estimated by government sources depict some improvement but it still needs to be improved substantially. The drop out rates has decreased from 64.9% in 1960-61 to 39.0% in 2001-2002 in primary classes while it has decreased from 78.3% to 54.6% during 2001-2002 in the upper primary stage (fig 18 and 19). The dropout rates from class I-V, observed from the sample survey indicates some improvement, as the dropout rates for the cohort selected in the survey was 22% for girls and 20% for boys in the three selected states. Andhra Pradesh recorded higher dropout rates for girls (25%), while boys drop out rate was high for Bihar and Madhya Pradesh (23% and 21% respectively). The empirical study conducted in the three states depicts very high dropout rates among households with “Always deficit food “at home. The poverty and distress displacements encourage parents to withdraw children from schools and enter them in work. Hence human resource developments take a back seat, thereby perpetuating poverty and generating child labour. Dropout Rates: 10 Quality Indicators 68 35 35 37 69 44 36 37 0 20 40 60 80 Bihar MP AP All Teacher/ Pupil Ratio Classroom /student ratio Percent Boys / Girls Attendance Percent Male/ Female Teachers Trained 79 72 75 75 81 69 83 77 23 54 72 48 22 56 78 61 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Bihar MP AP All Boys Girls Males Females Fig 16 (Based 0n Sample Survey) Fig 17 (Based 0n Sample Survey) Source: Sample Survey 2005 Source: Sample Survey 2005Droupout Rates Class 1-V 0 20 40 60 80 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2001- 2002 Percent Boys Girls All Droupout Rate Class VI-VIII 0 20 40 60 80 100 1960- 61 1970- 71 1980- 81 1990- 91 2001- 2002 Percent Boys Girls All Fig. 18 Fig. 19 Private Expenditure: Correlation Analysis: nd Contrary to the belief that primary education is free in India, the NSSO 52 round in 1995-96, indicates an annual per student expenditure (APSE) of Rs. 501 (US$ 12) for primary level and Rs. 915 (US$ 21) for upper primary 36 level. A significant rural urban variations were observed in the per student expenditure both at primary and upper primary levels. In the case of rural areas, the APSE was Rs. 297 ( US$ 7) for primary level and Rs. 640 ( US$ 15) for upper primary level, while in the case of urban areas the APSE was Rs. 1142 ( US$ 27) for primary level and Rs. 1529 ( US$ 36) for upper primary level. The gender gap in the APSE was slightly in favour of boys as compared to girls the fractile distribution of APSE further suggests inequity among different strata of income groups. The APSE for lowest 20% fractile was as low as Rs 197 (US$ 5) for primary level, while it was Rs. 1150 (US$ 27) for top 20 percent fractile at primary level. At Upper primary level the APSE for lower 20% fractile was Rs 426 (US$ 10), while it was Rs. 1547 (US$ 36) for upper 20% fractile. Thus in addition to lower APSE, the in equity also existed among rural/ urban as well as among different strata of income groups. The component wise expenditure depicts that 30% is paid in terms of admission fee, tuition fee and exam fee, 26% is spent on books and stationery, 24% on uniform and shoes and 14 % on private couching. The data from the field survey also reflected similar proportion of expenses under various heads, however proportion spent on private coaching was much higher, thereby suggesting that parents have started paying attention for improving quality education. A correlation matrix of the selected indicators was worked out to measure the level of association among 37 the selected indicators in the states and UTs of India, based on the DISE-2004 data. The results of the correlation matrix suggests improved access( number of schools per village), infrastructure development (per cent schools with toilet facilities), recruitment of lady teachers and percent teachers trained are correlated with better NER, GPI, high retention rates and attendance rates of students. Thus enrolment and quality of schools can be improved by increasing the access and reach of schools and by improving infrastructure in schools. (Refer Table 2) Fig. 20 Annual Private Expenditure Per Student 1995-96 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Boys Girls Both Boys Girls Both Boys Girls Both Rural Urban R+U US $ Primary U.Primary Fig. 21 Compomnent Wise Private Expenditure 0 10 20 30 40 Tuition, Exam, Other Fee Books and Stationery Uniform, shoes Transport Private Coaching and Others Survey - 2005 U.P Survey - 2005 Primary NSSO 52nd Round Data U.P NSSO 52nd Round Data Primary 11 Source: MHRD Source: MHRD Source: NSSO 1999-2000 Source: NSSO 1999-2000SECTION II: CHILD LABOUR Magnitude: Regional Pattern: There are varying estimates of working children magnitude in India due to differing concepts and methods 38 of estimation. The Census of India-1991 recorded 11.20 million working children, while the Census-2001 has recorded 12.66 million working children in the ages of 5-14 years (Fig. 22). Ninety percent of the children workers were from rural areas. The proportion of working children to the child population aged 5- 14 years, registered a marginal decline from 5.4 percent to 5 per cent during 1991-2001. The increase in the magnitude of child labour during 1991-2001 was in spite of tremendous efforts by government, United Nations and other international agencies and NGOs for universalizing primary and elementary education and removing children from work through education and other rehabilitative interventions. The results depicts that only education interventions without integrating poverty alleviation programmes in the policy may not yield desired results of reducing child labour. Andhra Pradesh state witnessed synergy of efforts between government, ILO, trade unions and NGOs during 1991-2001 in scaling up education initiatives for out-of-school children, but the strategy was not effective enough as the children dropped-out without completing the full cycle of elementary education and joined back in the workforce. The 2001 reported marginal decline in the magnitude of child labour during 1991-2001, but it still recorded the second highest magnitude of child workers after Uttar Pradesh. The field work conducted in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh strengthens the view as a significant proportion of children have dropped out from schools without completing full cycle of elementary education. Majority of the dropped out children were from extreme poverty families and preferred children to work for family sustenance. Thus the policy makers and planners need to incorporate and integrate poverty alleviation and strengthening livelihood opportunities along with education initiatives to release children from work. The regional variation of child workers suggests that high magnitude is found in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh in 2001. Among the larger states the proportion of working children in the age group of 5-14 years was high in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Karnataka. (Table No.3) India Child LABOUR 10.75 13.64 11.28 12.66 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Years 71 Years 81 Years 91 Years 2001 Mill oi n Child Workers 0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000 Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Kerela Madhya Pradesh Maharastra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamilnadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Jharkhand Chattisgarh 2001 1991 Fig. 22 12 Source: Census of India Source: Census of IndiaMagnitude of Out-of-School Children: Al l chi ldren not at tending schools are potential child workers and they need to be a d d r e s s e d i n a h o l i s t i c framework. According to the latest census figures of 2001 released in August 2005, out of 226 million children aged 6-14 years, 65.3 million children (29%) were not attending any educational institutes at the 3 9 t ime of the survey. The proportion of out-of-school boys was 25%, while it was 33% for girls. In spite of the official age of 6 years for enrolling children i n c l a s s I , a s i g n i f i c a n t proportion of children aged 6 years (60 percent) were not a t te n d i n g s c h o o l s . O n a n average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of children aged 10-14 years drop-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family livelihoods. The field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14 years. (Fig 23 and 24 ) India Percent Children Not attending School - 2001 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 to Age Group 14 P e rc e n t Both Boys Girls Fig. 23 Percent Children Out of School 18 17 18 16 15 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Bihar MP AP Boys Girls Fig. 24 (Based on sample Survey) Magnitude of child workers (Census 2001) figures with the Out-of-school children (Education Department Household Survey Data for SSA, 2002) figures depicts serious anomalies. In the case of Andhra Pradesh the Census data recorded 0.943 million main child workers aged 5-14 years, while the Education data recorded only 0.642 million out-of-school children for Andhra Pradesh. Similarly In the case of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh the Census data recorded 1.36 million,1.26 million and 1.06 million child workers (main + marginal workers) aged 5-14 years respectively, while the Education data recorded only 0.642 million, 1.06 million and 0.742 million out-of-school children respectively for Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Therefore out-of-school children estimated by the Education Department survey for SSA, seem to be grossly under-estimated and it requires review and subsequently SSA budget estimates need revision. 13 Percent Child Workers ( Aged 5-14 Years)-2001 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AP Assam Bihar Chatisgarh Gujarat Haryana HP Karnataka J&K Kerala MP Maharastra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu UP W.Bengal Pondi. India Source: Census of India Source: Census of India, Social Table No. 11 Source: Sample Survey 2005Work Activities: Case Study of Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh Out of the 12.66 million working children in 2001, about 5.77 million children were classified as 'main 40 workers' and the rest 6.88 million children were as 'marginal workers' . Most of the working children are engaged in agricultural activities as wage labourers or cultivators. Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs in the household industries engaged 3 % child workers, while 3% child workers were engaged in factory work and the other 15% working children were engaged in service sector, mostly as domestic 41 workers, and in small trade activities ( Fig 5) . Working children are usually classified in terms of work situations in domestic work, non-domestic and non-monetary work, bonded labour work, wage work in hazardous and non-hazardous occupations and commercial sexual exploitation work. Each work situation has deep-rooted consequences on their human rights, healthcare and future economic production processes. Some of the hazardous processes and occupations, where child labourers are found in large numbers are: 42 Hybrid cottonseed production is characterized as highly labour-intensive mating method, and girl children are engaged in most of its operations. Children are employed on a long-term contract basis through advances and loans extended to their parents by local seed producers, who have agreements with the 43 large national and multinational seed companies. Children are made to work long hours and are paid less than market and official minimum wages. They are also exposed to poisonous pesticides used in high 44 quantities in cottonseed cultivation. The India Committee of the Netherlands study indicated that, the situation of child labour in the farms producing hybrid seed for multi national companies (MNCs) is not significantly different from other farms producing seed for local companies. “Out of 174 farms surveyed, 44 farms produce seed for MNCs. A total of 272 children were employed in these farms during 2003-04 crop seasons. Children constitute 53.5% of total workforce. On an average 5.5 children were employed in one acre seed farm. Girls account for nearly 72% of the total child labour population”. Hazardous Occupations Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Agriculture hybrid cotton seed production Agricultural allied processes Bidi making, making thread from silk cocoon Mining Mica and slate Manufac tur ing proces ses carpet weaving, silk and other cotton weaving, leather, electric bulb making, glass and bangle making , sports especially ball stitching gem and diamond cutting and polishing, lock making Construction- manual labour, brick making and chipping, stone breaking Service industries domestic services, transport and garages, hotels and restaurants, sexual abuse and exploitation Agriculture Cultivation Manufacturing (HH) Factory Workers Others Source: Census of India 1991 India Child Labour Economic Activities 1991 44% 35% 3% 3% 15% PERCENT 14Hybrid Cotton Seeds Crush Stone for Road Making Bidi (Cigar) Making Electric Bulb 15Child Labour Elimination: Government Policy and Initiatives The Ministry of Labour at the centre and the corresponding ministry at the states are responsible for adopting constitutional, statutory and development measures, that are required to eliminate child labour. 45 Six ILO conventions related to child labour have been ratified. However ratification of the ILO Convention No. 182 is still pending. Child Labour Act 1986: It seeks to ban employment of children working in certain hazardous occupations; 46 the hazardous occupations are identified and reviewed by the expert committee from time to time. The Act also regulates the work of children in certain other industries. However there is no specific or all encompassing prohibition on the work for children. There are sectors such as domestic service, agriculture, urban and rural informal sectors where children work in large numbers. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976: The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act purports to abolish all debt agreements and obligations arising out of India's longstanding bonded labor system. It frees all bonded laborers, cancels any outstanding debts against them, prohibits the creation of new bondage agreements, and orders the economic rehabilitation of freed bonded laborers by the state. The Supreme Court directions in 1996: It gave directions for immediate identification of children in hazardous occupations and their subsequent rehabilitation, including providing appropriate education to the released children. The National Child Labour Policy: The National Child Labour Policy- 1987 addresses the complex issue of child through the legislative action plan by implementing Child labour-Act 1986 and project-based action plan in areas of high concentration of child labour. Under the project-based action plan the released children from the hazardous occupations are provided educational services in specially designed Non-formal education centers under the centrally sponsored National Child Labour Project (NCLP). The NCLP is currently in operation in 100 districts in 13 states, in the areas of high concentration of child labour throughout the country. Till September 2004-05, 4077 special NFE schools are in operation throughout the country, with a total enrolment of 203,850 children. Analysis of the implementation of Child Labour Act-1986 reveals that Act has several loopholes, because of which conviction rates are low. Only 1543 prosecutions have been registered, out of which 47 only 278 were convicted and 181 cases were acquitted, while the other cases are still pending. The onus of proving the age of child for the administration is difficult. The law should put the onus of proving age of employee on the employer. Moreover the provision of child can work in family units also makes it difficult to prosecute the offender. The policy envisages general development programme for families, but very little co-ordination and synergy was evinced at the grassroots level to identify the parents of target groups and provide benefits of poverty alleviation scheme on priority basis. The vocational training provided to the enrolled children under the NCLP has not been very useful as no synergy and coordination was observed with the poverty alleviation programmes of the rural development ministry to provide employment avenues or marketing support to the parents of the children as envisaged in the NCLP. The scale of support provided through the NCLP and the magnitude of child labour are mismatch and needs substantial scaling up. Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ 16International Response Non-Governmental Organizations and Civil Society Response: The UN agencies and other international bi-lateral and multi-lateral agencies support government of India and a large number of NGOs in developing micro projects for releasing child labour from hazardous occupations and providing educational support to released children and develop capacity building and provide livelihood support to families through vocational training. ILO has taken significant initiatives under the IPEC programme by supporting as many as 175 major projects against child labour. Currently ILO is targeting 80,000 children at risk of hazardous employment in brick manufacturing, stone quarrying, bidi manufacturing, footwear manufacturing, fireworks manufacturing, manufacturing of matches, silk manufacturing, lock making, brassware and glassware production through the INDUS project. The project also addresses the employment generation and skills development needs of 10,000 parents. It seeks to work with two major programmes of the Government of India: the NCLPs and the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). The World Bank: The World Bank has developed successful partnership with government of India to create the environment for broad based social and economic growth, which is an essential element of the process of eliminating 48 child labor. A Review of World Bank Lending for Children and its Bearing on Child Labour indicated that the World Bank and Asian Development Bank supported six major projects related to primary and elementary education in India, having a credit of US$ 1239 million. Major objective of the projects was improving physical access to schools, developing infrastructure, supporting quality and learning outcomes and supporting policy change and capacity building. (Table No. 4) The World Bank also supported District Poverty Innovation Projects (DPIPs) in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu during the period 2000-2005. These projects have a special component on release and rehabilitation of hard to reach children and for creating employment opportunities for the parents of these hard to reach children. NGO movement in India has been very strong in creating pressure on government to address the social development issues and create awareness for child rights. The Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA) and its partner's organizations under the banner of South Asian Coalition on Child Servitude (SACCS) have been in the forefront for creating awareness towards child rights. The major activities of BBA and SACCS partners has been to release and withdraw children from the worst forms of labour particularly from bondage and forced labor, through direct action, secret raids, legal intervention, persuasion and pressure building while ensuring their social, psychological, economic and statutory rehabilitation through quality transitory rehabilitation measures and state efforts. Keeping in view the holistic vision for child rights and child development Bal Mitra Gram- BMG (Child Friendly Village strategy is extended in 75 villages as a demonstration for other replicable projects) intervention has been one of the successful project of BBA. Other NGOs like M.V. Foundation, Pratham, CREDA, Project Mala, CINI-ASHA and other regional NGOs have demonstrated project based approach. The main focus has been to provide educational support to out-ofschool children, through bridge course/ camp schools/ non formal schools and mainstream the children in formal schools. 17Poverty Index: Labour force, employment and unemployment: Consumer Expenditure: According to official (Planning Commission) figures, over 260 million people (26 per cent population), still 49 live below the country's poverty line. Seventy five per cent of these were dwelling in rural areas. Although the proportion of people below poverty line has depicted significant improvement during the period 1993- 94 to 1999-2000 but the decline was lower than the projected poverty proportion of 18.61% by 2001 by the IX Plan document of Planning Commission (Fig 24). The shortfall was because of uneven performance among the most populous states of Orissa (47%), Bihar (43%), Madhya Pradesh (37%), Uttar Pradesh (36.5%), Assam (36%) and West Bengal (27%). These states together account for 67 percent of poor population in India.Behind these figures are human faces, human pain and suffering and a moral duty to 50 make poverty a thing of the past and create equity in development programmes. During the period 1983 to 1999-2000, the percentage of persons in the labour force at the national level declined from 66.5 per cent in 1983 to 61.8 per cent in 1999-2000. For the males this declined from 87.1 per cent to 83.5 per cent and for the females from 44.4 per cent to 38.5 per cent during this period. The growth in employment for persons employed in the age group 15 years and above on the usual principal and subsidiary status has also declined significantly in the nineties vis-à-vis the eighties. During the period (1993-94 to 1999-2000), the corresponding growth rates were 1.6 per cent on the whole and 1.3 and 2.4 respectively for rural and urban areas. Given the increase in the labour force, and a decline in the growth of 51 employment in the nineties vis-à-vis eighties has increased the incidence of unemployment. Incidence of unemployment has increased at the national level from 2 per cent in 1983 to 2.3 per cent in 1999-2000. There was an increase in the incidence of unemployment both for males and females on the whole and in particular for rural areas. The average monthly per capita consumer expenditure stood at Rs.554 ($13) in rural areas and Rs. 1022 52 ($24) in urban areas in 2003. Significantly a large scale disparity was found in the MPCE among the regional divisions of India. The MPCE among the different stratum, depicts that 31% population were having MPCE of less than Rs 380 (US$ 9) in rural areas and 20 % population were have MPCE of less than 53 Rs. 500 ( US$ 12) in urban areas ( Fig 26). The estimated Gini ratio indicates significant inequity in the MPCE among different stratum/ group of population in majority of states. Thus strong inequity exists in the MPCE among communities as well as regions. SECTION III: POVERTY SITUATION India Population Below Poverty Line 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 73-74 77-78 1983 87-88 93-94 99- 2000 Years % Peo p le Combined Rural Urban India Monthly PerCapita Consumer Expenditure Jan- Dec, 2003 3 28.3 29.7 24.4 6.4 8.2 2.6 17.6 28.3 35.7 7.3 8.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Less than 225 225- 380 380- 525 525- 775 775- 950 Above 950 MPCE In Rs P er c en t P o p u l a ti o n Rural Urban Fig. 24 Fig. 25 18 Source: Planning Commission 2002 Source: NSSO 59th Round 2003-2004India Growth In Employment (1999-2000) 1.3 2.4 1.6 1.6 2.6 1.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Rural Urban Combined Percent Persons Male Female India Percent Labour Force (1999-2000) 66.2 51.1 61.8 85.4 78.6 83.5 45.6 20.9 38.8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Rural Urban Combined P e r c e n t Persons Male Female India Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure in Rs. 567 520 415 626 781 422 556 981 455 584 398 886 570 609 509 538 554 1065 875 674 1046 1141 888 960 1300 1029 1166 832 1250 912 1087 786 991 1022 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharastra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal ALL INDIA MPCE -RURAL MPCE- URBAN Fig. 26 Fig. 27 Fig. 28 19 Source: NSSO 59th Round 2003-2004 Source: Planning Commission 2002 Source: Planning Commission 2002Attempts to curb child labour in India are failing miserably as poverty and social ignorance continue to drive children to work. The States having high incidence of poverty have also high magnitude and proportion of our-of-school children and child labour. Eighty three percent of the poor people are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam. Significantly 84 percent of Out-of-school children (6-11 years-NSSO 55th Round) and 72 percent of child workers aged 5-14 years (Official Census data-2001) are also concentrated in these eight states ( Fig 31- 32). A close association (positive Correlation of 0.7325 and 0.4563 at 0.05 percent of significance) was found between Poverty incidence with percent out-of-school children and Percent child workers respectively among the states of India. (Refer Map 2 and 3) According to the empirical study (Refer Fig.29-30 and 33- 34 ) Ÿ Households with “Always food deficit at home” (proxy indicator for poverty) also recoded high proportion of child workers, out of school children and dropout rates from schools as compared to the households having “Break-Even or Surplus food at homes”. Ÿ The response of the parents for sending children to work and “problems faced by parent if child stops work” again reinforces the poverty as one of the major cause for sending children to work. About 70% and 50% parental responses indicate that children are pushed to work in order to maintain income levels for sustenance and survival of the families, in the absence of appropriate wages for adults and seasonality of work respectively. This supports the assertion that poverty is the key reason for perpetuation of child labor. However on the other hand child labor is the primary cause of poverty, as it pushes children early to premature work thereby denying children the opportunity to acquire the education and skills they need to obtain decent work and incomes as adults. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Even the latest ILO study reveals that children only earn 20 percent income of an adult earning, while cost-benefit analysis for educating a child works out seven times returns. Ÿ The perceived cause underlying the phenomena of child labour include poverty and unemployment, distress migration and general lack of interest in education due to poor quality of education. The study results also indicate that general tendency is to replace adult labour by the child labour due to lower wages. This is corroborated with a significant decline in labour force participation rate Map No. 3 SECTION IV: CHILD LABOUR- HUMAN DEPRIVATION LINKAGES 20 Map No. 2 INDIA Poverty Incidence (Percent Population) 1999-2000 INDIA Percent Children our of school (6-11 years) 1999-2000 Source: Planning Commission Source: NSSO, 55th Round 1999-2000Poverty Rates and Percent Child Workers 2000 and 2001 15.77 36.09 42.6 42.6 14.07 8.74 7.63 20.04 3.48 12.72 37.43 25.02 47.15 6.16 15.28 21.12 31.15 27.02 21.67 26.1 7.7 5.07 4.68 6.97 4.28 4.78 8.14 6.91 6.62 0.47 6.71 3.54 4.37 3.23 8.25 3.61 4.04 4.5 1.34 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 AP Assam Bihar Chatisgarh Gujarat Haryana HP Karnataka J&K Kerala MP Maharastra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu UP W.Bengal Pondi. India Percent Percent Poverty All Workers Poverty Rates and Percent Children Out of Schools (6-11 years) (1999-2000) 15.77 36.09 42.6 42.6 14.07 8.74 7.63 20.04 3.48 12.72 37.43 25.02 47.15 6.16 15.28 21.12 31.15 27.02 21.67 26.1 18 20 43 34 14 16 5 17 17 5 27 11 25 11 24 7 25 22 3 18 0 10 20 30 40 50 AP Assam Bihar Chatisgarh Gujarat Haryana HP Karnataka J&K Kerala MP Maharastra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu UP W.Bengal Pondi. India Percent Percent Poverty Out of Schools Food Security and School Enrolment and Dropout Rates 30.7 12.8 5.6 2.5 69.3 87.2 94.4 97.5 15.6 6.8 2 1.3 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Always Deficit Sometimes Deficit Break-even Surplus Percent Percent Children Never Enrolled Percent children Enrolled Percent Drop-out Fig. 29 Percent Child Labour 30.3 13.6 4 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Always Deficit Sometimes Deficit Break-even Surplus Fig. 30 Fig. 31 Fig. 32 Problems If Child Stops Work (Parents Response) 35.9 15.1 9.4 15.9 10.7 12 0 10 20 30 40 Living standards will fall Hard to survive Difficult to run family business Household work will suffer Does not matter Others Percent Fig. 33 Reasons for Child Labour 69.4 24.1 7.8 8.7 3.5 6.3 12.8 0 20 40 60 80 For Income Support Repayment of Loan Not Successful In Examinations Unable to bear education expenses To Run family Business No Good Schools Others Percent Fig. 34 21 Source: Sample Survey 2005 Source: Sample Survey 2005 Source: Planning Commission 2002 & Census of India2001 Source: Planning Commission 2002 & NSSO 55th Round 1999-2000 Source: Sample Survey 2005 Source: Sample Survey 200522 Multivariate Analysis: Results and Analysis: To assess the independent contribution of different set of phenomena on child labour, multivariate analysis 54 was worked out for the field data collected from the sample survey. All households having children aged 5- 14 years were considered for the analysis. The size of sample was 683 households. The independent variables used in the study were ŸChild Labour: Whether child aged below 14 years worked for more than three hours in a day at the reference day for the last week. 5-9 years: 1, 10-12 years 2, 12-14 years 3. ŸChild education, years of schooling completed (Never Schooled 1, 1-5 years of schooling 2, 5+ years of schooling 3) ŸMothers Education level: completed (Never Schooled 1, 1-5 years of schooling 2, 5+ years of schooling 3. ŸFathers Education Level completed (Never Schooled 1, 1-5 years of schooling 2, 5+ years of schooling 3. ŸMonthly Education Cost: Nil 1, Up to Rs 100, Above Rs 100 3 ŸLevel of food deficit at home : Always deficit 1, Somewhat Deficit 2, Sufficient 3 ŸEver faced displacement from original home or current stay place for work, natural calamity, others. From original home 1, No displacement 2 ŸPercent adults unemployed in family during last 3 months 1, for last 3-6 month 2, for more than one year 3. ŸFamily indebtedness level: (Nil 1, up to Rs. 10000 2, Above Rs 10,000 3) ŸLand Ownership: Landless 1, Marginal land up to 100 decimals 2, Above 100 decimals 3 To assess the relative importance all the above selected multivariate logistic regression analysis was considered with the whole set of explanatory variables. The regression model adopted in this study was 55 from (Menard, 1995; Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1989) ; to identify the best model a stepwise approach was adopted and the model was selected by a combination of forward selection and backward elimination. Odd ratios of each of the regression coefficients were calculated to predict the child labour. The probability of particular level of child education and level of food deficit at home resulting in a child participating in the labour force was also calculated. The analysis identified 1278 children from the sample indicated that children were either only students (45%) , some were both workers as well as students ( 23%) , only workers (27%) and neither workers nor school going ( 5%). Multivariate logistic regression analysis was employed to under stand the relative importance of the educational and other socio-economic variables. Of the 10 indicators selected, three indicators (namely, displacements, indebtedness and monthly education cost) were eliminated and the following variables were included. The regression coefficients of the best model are displayed in the (Table No. 5) The study suggests that combination of factors work together for prevalence of child labour. The factors identified through the multivariate analysis were education deprivation of the child and parents, food deficit at home, unemployment status of any family member for more than 6 months and families with no or less land. Therefore the elimination of child labour requires multi pronged strategy of making schools accessible, providing quality education in schools, attacking food deficit scenario at home through poverty 56 alleviation programmes and providing employment to adults. The probability of children with particular characteristics participation in labour force was calculated. From the different combination of socioeconomic variables, the probability of child working ranged from 0.34 to 0.87. The probability of child aged 10+ years, with no schooling for mother and father, and having deficit food status and adult unemployed for more than 6 months with no land was as high as 87 percent. With the change in the combinations of socioeconomic variables, the probability of existence of child labour decreased and varied substantially. The result suggested that there might be some other socio-economic characteristics which need to be explored and included in the analysis to determine increased probability of participation in the labour force. The results suggest that the presence of child labour is a complex phenomenon, related to multiple issues and situations. It is a cause and consequence of vulnerabilities- poverty (food deficit at home), illiteracy of child, higher age children out-of-school, illiteracy of their parents, adult unemployment and non availability of agricultural land for livelihood opportunities.23 The study on child labour, elementary education and poverty situation in India depicts the following results and outcomes. India has already missed the gender parity target and target of covering all children aged 6-14 years in schools by 2005. Access, reach and gender parity deficit in schooling is observed, in the most populated states of Bihar, Uttar Padesh, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Rajasthan. Sixty-five million children aged 6-14 years were not attending any educational institutions in India, (Census- 2001, released in 2005) which were much higher than the education department estimates of 25 million children (MHRD- 2002 data). This has made the entire claim of the education plans under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All) out of sync with the reality. It is therefore important that the government brings out a new realistic road map addressing 65 million children out of school instead of the 25 million on which the road map was developed earlier. The states share of providing 25 per cent funds during the tenth plan (2002-07) and 50 per cent funds after the tenth plan, in addition to the existing allocations for elementary education, may not be actually achievable, in view of the tight financial position of some of the poor states. Hence sustainability of SSA may not be possible without providing more financial support to the poor state. The education (primary and high together) budget was 4.2% of the total GDP in 2003, which is still low in view of the expected norm of 6 percent of GDP. Again education budget was 14.6 per cent of the total budget for all other sectors, which is again on a lower side, keeping in view the magnitude of illiteracy rate and out-of school children. Annual public expenditure per student was US$ 44, which works out as 8.5 percent of per capita GDP. This is lower than the average of 10-12 percent of per capita GDP among low-income countries. Contrary to the belief that elementary education is free in India, the study revealed some private expenditure on elementary education from parents. The allocation on elementary educations needs substantial increase in the overall education budget especially for primary and elementary education. The SSA experiment of recruiting para-teachers (teachers without adequate qualification and training) to fill the gap of student/teacher ratio merits some exploration before it is universally adopted. The envisaged salary compensation for the para-teacher (US$ 40-45 per month) may not be sufficient to generate appropriate interest in them to inculcate quality teaching in the schools as they will be always on look out for another job and the amount spent on their training will be not utilized for teaching children... The SSA programme has stipulated 33 per cent grants for civil works across the country, which seems to be very low in the case of some states, keeping in view the existing number of out-of-school children and existing school building and classrooms. The existing school building, classrooms and other infrastructure in the states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa are unable to cope with the demand. Current reality is that the 5 grades of a primary school are crammed into 2 or 3 class-rooms with inevitable consequences for class-room environment and teacher-student interaction, with the result classrooms are highly congested, crammed with no room space. In case of such states more funds should be made available for construction of new schools and classrooms. Accountability of teachers to improve the quality needs direct involvement of community. Capacity building of the school management committee needs to be up scaled in order to prepare them for undertaking the task of monitoring, supervision and preparing educational plans as envisaged in the SSA. Currently very little inputs are provided by the community in plan formulations and supervision. Thus community ownership of schools is not visible as envisaged in the SSA. Elementary Education Issues: Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ SECTION V: SUMMING UP, RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS24 Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ The increase in number of schools is being outpaced by increase in the number of habitations and the school going child population. With the result several states depicted lower schools per villages/ habitation as well as very high threshold of population per primary and upper primary school. Thus filling the gap of access and reach deficit across the country would require additional financial budgets for construction of new schools and classroom. The Net Enrolment Rates (NER) of 73 per cent and Gender Parity Rate (GPI) of 0.93 shows significant improvement have been made, but regional gaps in these rates exhibits equity deficit, especially in the most populous states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. India has already missed the target of gender parity in enrolments by 2005. It calls for specific efforts of providing access to girls within their habitation as well as employing lady teachers in view of culture specific attitudes. Shortage of lady teachers has reflected in lower Gender Parity Enrolment Rates in the state of Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Lack of toilet facilities especially separate toilet services for girls have affected GPI rates, as states with lesser GPI rates also recorded less percent of schools with toilet facilities. This point was further reinforced through the field observations. There is an increasing necessity for a shift of paradigm focus to question of quality in school education. The result of poor quality of education explains high dropouts, low retention, transition and survival rates in government school in majority of states across the country. On an average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of children aged 10-14 years dropped-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family livelihoods. The empirical field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14 years. The co-efficient of correlation index suggests improved access, infrastructure development, recruitment of lady teachers and availability of trained teachers are correlated with better NER, GPI, retention rates and attendance rates of students. Even the official data has admitted that the magnitude of child labour has increased from 11.59 million in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001 (Census 2001). However unofficial sources claim between 25 to 30 million child workers, as significant number of child workers in domestic and agriculture sector are not covered in the census. Sixty-five million children aged 6-14 years were not attending any educational institutions in India, (Census- 2001, released in 2005) which were much higher than the education department estimates of 25 million children (MHRD- 2002 data). The prosecution and conviction rates in contravention of Child Labour Act-1986 were few pointing out poor implementation of the act, due to administrative lapses and lacunae in the Act. The National Child Labour Project (NCLP) and the INDUS- USDOL project for supporting released child labourers from work has very little synergy and coordination at the grassroots level with other welfare and poverty alleviation programmes. In the absence of such synergy, the enrolled children in the special schools do not complete full cycle of elementary education. Thus providing schooling without integrating other poverty alleviation programmes for the extreme poor families have not been successful. Moreover, the scale of coverage of both the NCLP and the INDUS-USDOL project and the magnitude of child labour are mismatch and needs substantial scaling up. The quality of education and vocational training provided in majority of the NCLP special schools is below standard, due to limited monitoring either from labour department or from education department. The education component should be monitored by the education department for improving quality of education. On an average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of Child Labour Issues:25 children aged 10-14 years drop-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family livelihoods. The empirical field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14 years. According to the Planning Commission 260 million people (26% of population) still live below the poverty line in India. Eighty three percent of these poor people are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam. Significantly 84 percent of Outof-school children (6-11 years) and 72 percent of child workers aged 5-14 years are also concentrated in these eight states. A close association (positive Correlation of 0.7325 and 0.4563) was found between Poverty incidence with percent out-of-school children and Percent child workers respectively among the states of India. The average monthly per capita consumer expenditure (MPCE) is not only very low, US$ 13 in rural areas and US$ 24 in urban areas, but in-equity also exists in the MPCE, as the bottom 20% population have less than US$ 9 and US $12, MPCE in rural and urban areas respectively. Labour force participation declined for both males and females during 1983 to 1999-2000 and hence employment rates have declined for both gender groups across rural and urban areas but the decline was more for women in rural areas. Given the increase in the labour force, and a decline in the growth of employment in the nineties the incidence of unemployment has increased significantly. The study suggests that combination of factors work together for prevalence of child labour. The factors identified through the multivariate analysis were education deprivation of the child and parents, food deficit at home, unemployment status of any family member for more than 6 months and families with no or less land. These variables explained 87% presence of child labour through the multivariate analysis. Therefore the elimination of child labour requires multi pronged strategy of making schools accessible, providing quality education in schools, attacking food deficit scenario at home through poverty alleviation programmes and providing employment to adults. The strict compliance and enforcement of child labour laws and other labour laws will automatically encourage adult employment along with provision of minimum stipulated wages. The empirical study reflected households with “Always food deficit at home” (proxy indicator for poverty) also recoded high proportion of child workers, out of school children and dropout rates from schools as compared to the households having “Break-Even or Surplus food at homes”. The response of the parents for sending children to work and “problems faced by parent if child stops work” again reinforces the poverty as one of the major cause for sending children to work. About 70% and 50% parental responses indicate that children are pushed to work in order to maintain income levels for sustenance and survival of the families, in the absence of appropriate wages for adults and seasonality of work respectively. This supports the assertion that poverty is the key reason for perpetuation of child labor. However on the other hand child labor is the primary cause of poverty, as it pushes children early to premature work thereby denying children the opportunity to acquire the education and skills they need to obtain decent work and incomes as adults. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Even the latest ILO study reveals that children only earn 20 percent income of an adult earning, while cost-benefit analysis for educating a child works out seven times returns. For International Community: MDGs and child labor are intimately linked. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Indeed, it is Poverty, labour force and unemployment Issues: Child Labour- Human Deprivation Linkages: Recommendations: Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ26 poverty associated with social injustice and social exclusion that is most closely related to child labor. The absence of child labor from the MDG framework is a regrettable omission that needs to be corrected with a sense of urgency if the intent is to achieve the MDGs. Achieving the MDG and Dakar goals for poverty alleviation and universalization of primary and elementary education within the target time, would require scaling up of public investments, capacity building, domestic resource mobilization, and official development assistance. In view of the need for resource mobilization, high-income countries should increase official development assistance (ODA) to support the Millennium Development Goals, particularly in low-income countries, with improved ODA quality (including aid that is harmonized, predictable, and largely in the form of grants-based budget support). Each donor should reach 0.7 percent no later than 2015 to support the Goals and other development assistance priorities. International donors should identify more MDG "fast-track" countries for a rapid scale-up of official development assistance (ODA) in view of recognizing that many countries including India are already in a position for a massive scale-up on the basis of their good governance and absorptive capacity. Organizations that fund development projects in India, including the World Bank, should routinely include in all contracts a clause, enforceable by canceling the project, requiring compliance with international labor standards or domestic labor laws, whichever are higher. The World Bank should conduct a comprehensive review of all of its projects in India to determine whether child labor is in any way involved, directly or indirectly, and make the results public. Bodies such as the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), U.S. Department of Labor, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), U.N. agencies, and others that fund projects aimed at reducing child labour should insist that local governments in the areas where their projects operate enforce the child and bonded labour laws, and should contribute resources for capacity building, and technical assistance to local governments to adequately enforce those laws. For Government of India: Incorporate multi-pronged approach by crafting effective synergy and coordination process between central and state governments departments towards child labour elimination efforts. The central and state governments should internalize the linking up processes of poverty alleviation, health support and elementary education in a unified manner to eliminate child labour supply and demand aspects effectively. Develop District Poverty Initiative Programmes (DPIP) for all backward districts having integrated component of livelihood strategies, focusing most vulnerable rural communities, especially child labour and their families. The DPIP should be a community participatory project in line with the existing DPIP projects in Andhra Pradesh state. The SSA would require scaling up of public investments/ budgets through domestic resource mobilization and official development assistance for improving school infrastructure, quality of teaching and school environments, to ensure full implementation of newly incorporated Article 21-A of the constitution, providing free and compulsory quality education to all children below 14 years. Review of the SSA and incorporate more budgetary allocations, in view of the 65 million out-of-school children aged 6-14 years as estimated by the Census- 2001. The central government should ensure the th sustainability of SSA after the 10 Plan in view of the stipulated mandatory 50% contributions required from the state governments. The government of India should take all possible steps to enforce the child labor and bonded labour laws. The child labour Act-1986 requires amendments to incorporate the requirements that all employers should have the onus to prove that any worker employed is above 14 years of age and the failure to have adequate proof should constitute a separate violation of the Act. Ratify ILO Convention No. 138 concerning the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, ILO Convention No. 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour. Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ ŸAndhra Pradesh 1.93 186 87 69 0.98 38 Assam 1.03 167 86 74 0.96 34 Bihar 0.83 442 76 68 0.76 17 Chhatisgarh 0.88 133 108 90 0.94 25 Gujarat 1.32 247 91 69 0.87 47 H.P. 0.62 84 111 86 0.92 42 Haryana 0.81 390 52 42 0.91 42 Jharkhand 0.6 286 76 62 0.84 22 Karnataka 0.98 195 106 84 0.94 43 Kerela 2.96 416 89 72 0.97 71 M.P. 0.89 163 94 73 0.9 29 Maharashtra 1.1 212 102 84 0.91 43 Meghalaya 0.91 93 98 67 1.03 51 Mizoram 1.47 65 128 102 0.94 48 Nagaland 1.38 226 104 93 0.94 38 Orissa 0.74 164 109 86 0.92 31 Punjab 0.85 402 0.93 Rajasthan 1.44 172 88 62 0.86 24 Sikkim 1.58 148 128 81 0.97 40 Tamil Nadu 1.51 191 106 86 0.93 68 Tripura 2.88 229 132 118 0.92 19 Uttar Pradesh 0.97 314 85 79 0.9 31 Uttranchal 0.82 112 90 76 0.97 51 W. Bengal 0.87 297 103 82 0.98 24 India 1.15 242 96 73 0.93 36 Table No. 1A India Elementary Education Indicators- 2004 Access Enrollment Gender Schools/Village Children/Village GER NER GPI %Female Teachers State Source: District Information on School Education (DISE), NIEPA,MHRD-2004 27Andhra Pradesh 39 51 27 31 63 90 Assam 36 60 25 18 96 36 48 Bihar 92 79 13 74 51 35 34 Chhatisgarh 33 80 9 26 80 64 Gujarat 41 64 32 38 70 43 84 H.P. 12 86 28 14 99 91 Haryana 48 91 71 34 77 64 75 Jharkhand 64 80 9 58 80 41 34 Karnataka 38 66 27 36 90 63 95 Kerela 32 90 77 27 97 99 103 M.P. 48 82 24 31 64 69 81 Maharashtra 41 74 32 34 95 67 86 Meghalaya 21 39 17 19 37 Mizoram 20 67 36 17 57 Nagaland 41 37 28 26 59 Orissa 43 73 22 43 77 54 61 Punjab 34 77 50 31 Rajasthan 34 70 35 32 68 43 Sikkim 19 63 82 17 65 Tamil Nadu 39 92 41 43 89 90 99 Tripura 40 68 28 21 67 Uttar Pradesh 67 95 66 67 62 51 54 Uttranchal 23 70 56 22 87 60 W. Bengal 55 74 50 55 78 47 64 India 46 78 36 39 76 58 71 Table No. 1B India Education Indicators Infrastructure and Quality 2004 State Source: District Information on School Education (DISE), NIEPA,MHRD-2004 Infrastructure Quality SCR Drinking Water Toilet PTR Transition Rate Retention Rate Survival Rate 28Table No. 2 Co-efficient of Correlation values 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 0.125 -0.194 0.567 0.456 0.543 0.289 -0.291 0.132 0.718 0.366 -0.092 0.299 2 0.673 -0.592 -0.396 -0.430 -0.112 0.608 -0.326 0.013 0.006 0.406 0.314 3 -0.517 -0.266 -0.693 -0.521 0.914 -0.688 -0.554 -0.324 0.300 -0.190 4 0.881 0.354 0.047 -0.457 0.386 0.242 0.163 -0.258 -0.065 5 -0.209 -0.063 -0.280 0.356 0.166 0.14 -0.150 -0.169 6 0.683 -0.625 0.550 0.470 0.277 -0.395 0.697 7 -0.372 0.579 0.835 0.584 0.041 0.441 8 -0.620 -0.415 -0.255 0.405 -0.088 9 0.471 0.741 0.074 0.171 10 0.832 0.543 0.538 11 0.278 0.307 12 0.324 Sl. No Indicators 1. Primary School Per Village 2. Children Aged 5-14 Per Primary/UP 3. Student Classroom Ratio 4. GER (Primary Level) 5. NER (Primary Level 6. Gender Parity Enrollment Index 7. % Female Teacher (Primary Schools) 8. Pupil Teacher Ratio (Primary + UP) 9. Transition Rate 10. Retention Rate 11. Survival Rate 12. % Schools Having Drinking Water 13. % Schools Having Toilet Facility 29Andhra Pradesh 1661940 1363339 9.98 7.7 -2.28 Arunachal Pradesh 12,395 18482 5.65 6.06 0.41 Assam 327598 351416 5.46 5.07 -0.39 Bihar 942,245 1117500 3.99 4.68 0.69 Chattisgarh 364572 6.96 6.96 Delhi 27351 41899 1.27 1.35 0.08 Goa 4656 4138 1.95 1.82 -0.13 Gujarat 523585 485530 5.26 4.28 -0.98 Haryana 109,691 253491 2.55 4.78 2.23 Himachal Pradesh 56438 107774 4.55 8.14 3.59 Jammu & Kashmir 175630 6.62 6.62 Jharkhand 407200 5.47 5.47 Karnataka 976247 822665 8.81 6.91 -1.90 Kerela 34800 26156 0.58 0.47 -0.11 Madhya Pradesh 1352563 1065259 8.08 6.71 -1.37 Maharastra 1068418 764075 5.73 3.54 -2.19 Orissa 452394 377594 5.87 4.37 -1.50 Punjab 142,868 177268 3.04 3.23 0.19 Rajasthan 774199 1262570 6.46 8.25 1.79 Sikkim 5598 16457 5.18 12.04 6.86 Tamilnadu 578,889 418801 4.83 3.61 -1.22 Tripura 16478 21756 2.29 2.79 0.50 Uttar Pradesh 1410086 1927997 3.81 4.04 0.23 Uttranchal 70183 3.24 3.24 West Bengal 711691 857087 4.16 4.5 0.34 INDIA 11285349 12666377 5.37 5 -0.37 Table No. 3 Child Labour Population, 1991-2001 State Source: Census of India Tables on Workers-2001 Child Workers 1991 Child Workers 2001 % Workers 1991 % Workers 2001 Change 1991 - 2001 30Table No. 4 INDIA Education, Child Labour Elimination Projects Supported by the World Bank 1990-2005 Second District Primary Education Project - 1996 Credit 260 Education 35 43 22 Uttar Pradesh Second Education Basic Project- 1997 Credit 59 Education 32 68 Third District Primary Education Project - 1997 Credit 152 Education 52 38 10 Rajasthan District Primary Education Project- 1999 Credit 86 Education 20 45 35 Uttar Pradesh Third District Education Project-1999 Credit 182 Education 37 30 33 Elementary Education - 2004 Credit 500 Elem. Education All Education Projects 1239 Project Loan/ Credit/ Grant Amount US$ Million Sector Percent Amount stipulated 1 2 3 Source: The World Bank Project Paper. 1: Improving Physical Access 2: Supporting learning outcomes 3: Supporting Policy Change Table No. 5 Regression Coefficients and odd ratios Variable Regression Coefficient Standard Error Odd Ratios Age 5-9 Years 10-12 Years 12-14 Years Child Education No Schooling 1-5 years 5+ years Mothers Education No Schooling 1-5 years 5+ years Fathers Schooling No Schooling 1-5 years 5+ years Food deficit Always deficit Somewhat Deficit Sufficient Adult Employed Last 3 months 3-6 months 6+Months Land Ownership Landless Up to 100 Above 100 0.00 0.67*** 0.77*** 0.00 - 0.25*** - 0.62*** 0.00 - 0.28** - 0.48** 0.00 - 0.18* -0.58*** 0.00 - 0.18* - 0.43*** 0.00 0.36*** 0.77*** 0.00 -0.09 -0.44*** - 0.06 0.04 - 0.08 0.14 - 0.11 0.17 - 0.09 0.12 - 0.07 0.18 - 0.09 0.05 - 0.07 0.11 1.00 1.76 2.16 1.00 0.78 0.52 1.0 0.79 0.64 1.0 0.86 0.54 1.0 0.86 0.23 1.0 1.56 1.98 1.0 0.65 0.43 31REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. The World Bank document, prepared for providing loan for Elementary Education, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan - 2004 2. The Millennium Development Goal Report 2005, United Nations, New York, 2005. 3. The World Bank, Attaining Millennium Development Goals in India, Role of Public policy and service delivery, Human Development Unit , South Asia Region, June 2004 4. Planning Commission, Government of India, Tenth Plan, Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas, 2002. 5. The National Rural Employment Act envisages, providing 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to one family member of rural households in 200 backward districts of India. Initially 200 districts will be covered which including 150 districts now under the food for work programme. The scheme would be extended to all 600 districts in five years. The Bill also provides for unemployment allowance if the job, under the scheme, is not provided. The minimum daily wage has been fixed at Rs 60 per day ( $1.45 ) 6. The World Bank, Attaining Millennium Development Goals in India, Role of Public policy and service delivery, Human Development Unit , South Asia Region, June 2004 7. Report on the Evaluation of UNESCO's E-9 Initiative, December 2003, pg.32 8. Ibid. 9. The index should measures overall progress towards EFA, six goals. In practice, however, this is difficult, as Goal 3 learning and life-skills programmes is not yet conducive to quantitative measurement. For rather different reasons, ECCE cannot easily be incorporated at present, because the data are insufficiently standardized across countries, and they are, in any case, available for only a small minority of states. Accordingly, an EDI has been designed which incorporates indicators for the four goals of UPE, adult literacy, gender parity and the quality of education. One indicator has been included as a proxy measure for each of these four EDI components. This is in accordance with the principle of considering each goal to be equally important and, thus, of giving the same weight to each of the index constituents. So the EDI value for a particular country is the arithmetical mean of the observed values for each of its different constituents. As each of its constituents is percentages, its value can vary from 0 to 1. The closer it is to its maximum value, the less distance a country is from the goal and the greater its EFA achievement. 10. UNESCO , EFA Monitoring Report 2006. 11. A School Report of 14 Developing Countries in Asia Pacific, published by Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education and Global Campaign for Education, 2005. 12. Operation Blackboard a centrally sponsored scheme initiated in 1987 and was a major initiative to improve the teacher/ pupil ratio as it provided second teacher to all single teacher primary schools. 13. DPEP is a World Bank supported programme. It was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme in 1994 in 42 districts of seven states (Assam, Haryana, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Tamil Nadu) with the aim of providing access to primary education for all children, reducing primary dropout rates to less than 10 per cent, increasing learning achievements of primary school students by at least 25 per cent and reducing gender and social gaps to less than 5 per cent. The programme components include construction of classrooms and new schools opening of Alternative Schooling Centers, appointment of new teachers, setting up early childhood education centers, strengthening of State Councils of Educational Research and Training (SCERTs) / District Institute of Educational Training (DIETs), setting up of Block Resource Centers / Cluster Resource Centers, teacher training, development of Teaching Learning Material, special interventions for education of girls, SC/ST, working children etc. Initiatives for providing integrated education to disabled children and distance education for teacher training have also been incorporated in the DPEP Scheme. At its peak, the programme was being implemented in 272 districts of 18 States and it is now continuing in 129 districts of nine States. The programme is in the last phase and will be merged with the SSA programme after its completion period in 2007. It has been funded jointly by the World Bank, European Commission (EC), UK Department of International Development (DFID), Government of Netherlands and UNICEF. DPEP is an externally aided project, with 85 per cent of the project cost being met by the Government of India and the remaining 15 per cent shared by the concerned State Government. The Government of India share is resourced through external assistance. External Assistance of about Rs. 69,380 million, comprising Rs. 51,370 million as credit from IDA and Rs. 180,00 million as grant from EC/DFID/UNICEF/ Netherlands has been tied up for DPEP. 14. The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), popularly known as the Mid-Day Meal (MDM) Scheme, was launched on August 15, 1995, with the objective of giving a boost to Universalization of 32Primary Education through improvements in the nutritional status of students in primary classes of Government, local body and Government-aided schools. The programme was extended to children studying in Education Guarantee Schools (EGS) and other alternative learning centers in October 2002. Central support was provided by way of supply of free food grains through the Food Corporation of India @ 100 gm per child per school day where cooked meals were served, and @ 3 kg per student per month where food grains were distributed. Though all States were expected to move rapidly towards provision of cooked meals under the programme, many States were facing difficulty in providing cooked meals to children due to financial constraints. To overcome this problem and in pursuance of policy pronouncements made in the President's address to Parliament in June 2004 and Finance Minister's Budget Speech 2004-05, the scheme has been revised with effect from September 2004. Under the revised Scheme, the Central Government is providing assistance to the States to meet the cooking cost also @ Re. 1 per child, per school day. Over and above the Budget provision of Rs. 16,750 million for the scheme for 2004-05, a sum of Rs. 12, 320 million has been provided through the First Supplementary Estimates of 2004-05 as Additional Central Assistance to States to meet cooking costs. The programme is benefiting about 110 million primary school children in the country. A National-level Steering-cum-Monitoring Committee (NSMC) has been constituted to oversee management and monitoring of the programme at the national level, and State Governments have been requested to constitute similar committees at State, district and block levels to ensure smooth implementation of the programme with good quality. 15. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Teacher Education was launched in 1987-88 to create an institutional infrastructure to provide academic and technical resource support for continuous education and training of school teachers. District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) set up under the Scheme provide academic resource support to formal and non-formal elementary school teachers, Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutes of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs) have been given the responsibility of organising pre-service and in-service training of secondary school teachers. IASEs are also expected to conduct programmes for the preparation of elementary school teacher educators. The Scheme has been revised for the Tenth Plan and guidelines of the revised Scheme were issued to States in January 2004, with emphasis on operationalising sanctioned DIETs, CTEs and IASEs in an optimum manner, and on improving the quality of teacher training programmes in them. Since the inception of the Scheme in 1987-88, a total of 550 DIETs/DRCs and 131 CTEs/IASEs have been sanctioned/approved up to December 2004. 16. The objective of KGBV is to ensure access and quality education to the girls of disadvantaged groups of society by setting up 750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level for a minimum of 50 girls, belonging predominantly to the scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, other backward castes and minorities in difficult areas. A total of 715 KGBVs have been approved during 2004-05. In view of the targeted nature of the scheme, 75% girls from SC, ST, OBC or minority communities would be accorded priority for enrolment in such residential schools. Established NGOs and other non-profit making bodies will be involved in the running of the schools, wherever possible. The scheme will be implemented by State Governments through the Mahila Samakhya (MS) Society in MS states and through the SSA society in case of other states. The scheme is being implemented in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. A provision of Rs. 4,890 million has been made for the Tenth Plan and Annual plan allocation for the year 2004-05 is Rs. 1,000 million. Nearly 715 KGBVs have been approved by Department of Elementary Education and Literacy involving an amount of Rs. 1,675 million for the Year 2004-05. 17. Janshala Programme was a joint venture of United Nations and Government of India, Primary Education Department, with the major aim of involving community participation in formal schooling system in selected districts of India. It promoted a constant interaction between the literacy functionaries like education administration of the state, educators and the members of the beneficiary community in regular formal meetings. Such interactions or formal meetings may, however, be too soft a mechanism for the effective implementation of the literacy/ educational projects, but as a preliminary step towards more effective forms of community participation, this is quite desirable and effective approach. Janshala programme has empowered the community by addressing to its legitimate organizational framework like monitoring of formal schools by a Committee consisting of education committee member selected by the people. The essence of the programme is not to shift communities' point of dependence from administration to NGOs but to empower the community directly to seek their due entitlements. Janshala programme clearly established a link between the administration, community, NGOs and other civil society to operate together synergistically. Major aim of Janshala was to create community empowerment for ensuring universal participation of children and better school management, capacity building of teacher's empowerment and quality improvement in education Reach difficult groups of children, especially girls among them and ensure proper management and the level of decentralisation: 18. World Bank document prepared for seeking loan from the World Bank for the Elementary Education 2004 19. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan document, of Government of India, MHRD- 2002 20. Data on government elementary education expenditure were obtained from detailed budget demand documents of individual states. Although government expenditure on primary education is of interest in this paper, state 33government expenditure in India are available only for the elementary level, comprising the lower primary (grades 1-5) and upper primary (grades 6-8) levels. Note that the state government expenditure data used in this paper includes expenditure incurred by a state government out of its own revenues as well as central government allocations to that state. 21. Ministry of Human Resource and Development and National Institute of Education Planning and Administration EDUCATION FOR ALL, India Report, Year 2000 Assessment. New Delhi. 22. Field observation in Bihar state district Gaya and Madhya Pradesh state district Bhopal and Hoshangabad. 23. The Population threshold was worked out by working ratio of children aged 5-14 years (Census-2001 data) with the number of primary and upper primary school (DISE- 2004) data. Unfortunately the census data for the states was not available for age group 6-14 which would have been more appropriate in view of the children being enrolled from age 6 in classes I. 24. The high thresh hold for Kerala and Haryana can be explained, as these two states have high number of private primary/ upper primary schools even in rural areas, which is not counted in the DISE data. 25. NIEPA; DISE Data- 2004. The DISE 2004 data is for 25 states and it includes enrollments both in government and private primary and upper primary schools. 26. Gross Enrolment rate is percent children reported enrolled in class I-V in schools to official children aged 6-11 years. 27. Net Enrolment Rate s to Official Enrollment at primary level aged 6-11 years / Official School age Population in the Age Group 6-11 Years. 28. NER data from household survey conducted by the NSSO/ Census is considered more accurate that the GER data from the government schools (DISE information). The DISE information tends to over estimate the enrolment figures, as children enrolled in the schools at the beginning of the session, due to awareness campaign or incentive induced strategies, continue to be counted in school enrolments irrespective of their current status of whether they attend or not attend the schools. 29. The observation that Punjab and Haryana have higher rates of female than male primary enrollment deserves an explanation. These states actually have a very different form of gender discrimination in schooling. Since these are rich states, both boys and girls get enrolled in school. However, since there is a growing private sector in these states, parents tend to enroll their male children in private schools while enrolling their daughters in government schools. Since school-based administrative data typically only cover enrollment in government institutions, the boys who are shifted out of the government schools are not counted while the girls attending government schools are counted. This gives a misleading picture of girls having higher enrollment rates than boys. 30. Ministry of Education Report, (1992), Challenge of Education. - P36. 31. The PROBE Study, (1999), pp.41. 32. UNICEF (1996): Progress of the States 33. Yadav, M.S and Others (2000), EDUCATION FOR ALL, Learner Achievement in Primary Schools, MHRD, GOI and NIEPA. 34. MHRD Statistics on Education Status of India 2001-02. 35. The Gross Drop-out Rate represent percentage of pupils who drop out from a given grade or cycle or level of education in a given school year. The method used to calculate Gross Drop-out Rates is known as the Apparent Cohort Method. There are certain limitations of this method in providing precise estimates, as it does not take into account the data on repeaters. 36. The NSSO 52nd Round was conducted in 1995-96. The US $ rate is based on current conversion (2005) rate of Rs 43 per US$. 37. The indicators selected for the correlation were, Primary schools per village (Rural areas), Gross Enrolment Rate, Net Enrolment Rate, Gender Parity Enrolment Index, Per cent lady teachers to total teachers, Per cent schools having toilet facilities, Per cent schools having drinking water facility, Pupil/ Teacher ratio, Student classroom ratio, Transition rate, Retention rate and Survival rate 38. The information on children working in informal sectors, or attending schools, who might also be working is difficult to procure. The collection of reliable data regarding child labour is limited also by the fact that, officially the work undertaken by children in domestic and informal sectors are excluded from worker's category, as it is difficult to assess the productive value of such labour. Thus official child labour figures are always at such variance with statistics quoted by non-governmental agencies. Two main sources of most authentic data on child labour are Census of India and National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) reports. NSSO 55th Round in 1999-2000 and Census 2001 presents, age wise workers, which is one the most authentic source of data for working out magnitude of child workers. 39. The age group of 6-14 years was chosen as this group has constitutional guarantee for free and compulsory 34education. according to newly incorporated Article 21-A. Information from household surveys like Census and NSSO refer to children attending schools, irrespective of their enrolment status. On the other hand administrative school data infer all enrolled children are attending schools, hence household survey data is more authentic and reliable. 40. Main workers are those workers who are found engaged for production activities for more than six months (more the 183 days in a year), while marginal workers are those workers who work for less than six months in a year. 41. There is a possibility that some of the child factory workers are not recorded and the number is under-estimated, since the law prohibits the employment of children in factories. 42. Mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotype are known as hybridization. Hybrid cotton seed production in a self pollinated crop- a difficult task, especially when a large quantity is to be produced for commercial production. Unlike other hybrid seeds like paddy and jowar, in cottonseed, cross pollination work has to be done manually. Each individual flower bud has to be emasculated and pollinated by hand by a large labour force. Doak`s method of emasculation of the flower bud is used. This method involves the removal of bracts first by hand, and then the petals, along with the entire anther-sac whorl, with the nail of the thumb, without damaging the stigma, style or ovary. Crossing needs to be done as soon as the flowers blossom before the female flowers bear fruit (and consequently produce non-hybridised or `fake' seeds). 43. Venkateswarlu, D. (2004), Child labour in hybrid cottonseed production in Andhra Pradesh: recent developments, INDIA COMMITTEE OF THE NETHERLANDS (ICN) THE NETHERLANDS 44. Ibid. 45. V. V. Giri National Institute, (1996): Towards Eliminating Child Labour. NOIDA. 46. The hazardous occupations listed in the Act-1986 are glass factories of Firozabad in (Uttar Pradesh), the slate industry in Mandsaur in (Madhya Pradesh) and Markapur in (Andhra Pradesh), the match industry in Sivakasi (Tamil Nadu), the lock industry at Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh), the diamond polishing industry in Surat (Gujarat), the brass-ware industry in Moradabad (Uttar Pradesh), the balloon factories of Dahanu (Maharastra), the gem stone industry in Jaipur (Rajasthan), the carpet industry in Mirzapur- Bhadhoi- Varanasi- Allahabad belt in ( Uttar Pradesh) and Kashmir Valley in (Jammu and Kashmir) etc; 47. Ministry of Labour, Question-Answer session in Lok Sabha -2003, source: Statistical Data from Website. 48. I. Kaur: A Review of World Bank Lending for Children and its bearing on Child Labour. Understanding Children's Work An Interagency Research Cooperation Project, 2002 49. Planning Commission, Government of India, Tenth Plan, and Poverty Alleviation in Rural areas 2002. 50. The United Nations Human Development Index state, poverty does not only mean low income, low consumption and low calories intake , it also includes lack of access to essential things required for a decent living: health, education, economic opportunities, security, cultural liberty and social respect. 51. The incidence of unemployment defined as percentage of persons unemployed in the age group 15 years and above on the usual principal and subsidiary status to the total number of persons in the labour force 52. National Sample Survey Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, 59th round , Report No. 490 on Household Consumer Expenditure and Employment- unemployment Situation in India, May 2005. 53. It is not only the average level of expenditure that is important for assessing economic attainments, but it is also desirable to know how it is distributed across the population in the State or the region among other groups of MPCE . A State may have high average per capita consumption expenditure only because of high expenditure levels in the top income deciles of the population. On the other hand, the same average consumption level can be obtained from a more equitable distribution of expenditure levels. 54. A field survey was conducted in August- September 2005 in sample six villages appropriately selected from Block/ Mandals of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. For the purpose of this study a sample survey of 625 households from the three states of Bihar (Block Bodh Gaya and Dhobi in Gaya, District); Madhya Pradesh (Block Sanchi in Raisen district and block Babai in Hoshangabad district) and Andhra Pradesh (Mandal Bhootput in Mehboobnagar and Mandal Shankerpally in Rangareddi district) were selected. The three states were selected because of the presence of high proportion of out-of-school children and measures adopted by the state governments to create conducive condition for universalization of education. Andhra Pradesh state with support from United Nations agencies and other international agencies took several proactive measures to release children from work. Madhya Pradesh took lead in developing Education Guarantee Schools (EGS) in 1997 to cover all out-of-school children as an innovative programme, which was later incorporated in the SSA. Bihar state has high proportion of out-of-school children due to lack of availability, access and infrastructure in schools. Keeping these parameters in view the three states were selected for the survey. six villages, one village from each of the blocks/ mandals were selected randomly for the survey. Separate samples were drawn from each village. Considering the variable of interest as dichotomous, a sample size of 125 households from each village was 35calculated with a precision level of 5% and a 95% confidence limit (Cochran, W.G. 1977, Sampling technique, Singapore, John Wiley and Sons and Kalton. G, 1983, Introduction to Survey Sampling , Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in Social sciences, 070035, Newbury Park, CA, Sage ) . A cluster sampling approach was followed in the survey. Thus a total of 625 households were selected randomly. 55. Hosmer, D.W & Lemeshow, S (1989): Applied Logistic Regression, John Wiley and Sons, New york. 56. Older children aged 10-12 years were 76% more likely to work and children aged 12-14 were 116 % more likely to work. Children education were negatively associated with child labour, children educated up to class V and more than class V were less likely to be employed as child labourers in the proportion of 22% and 48% respectively. Similarly mothers and fathers education level was also negatively associated with child labour. Significantly food status deficit was also negatively associated with the child labour, lower the food status deficit lower was the chances of child labour and visa versa. Thus food security was closely associated to less child labour. Adult unemployment was positively associated with the child labour. Higher the period of adult employment higher was the chance of child labour. Household land ownership was again negatively associated with the child labour. Children of households having land up to 100 decimals were 35% and with land above 100 decimal 57% less likely to work than the children's families with no land. 36International Centre on Child Labor and Education 1925 K Street, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20006 Ph.: 202-258-8873 Email: sjoshi@iccle.org Website: www.iccle.org Global March Against Child Labour International Secretariat E-868, C. R. Park, New Delhi-110 019, India Ph.: 91 11 51329025 Telefax: 91 11 26278358 Email: info@globalmarch.org Website: www.globalmarch.org

Review of Child Labour,
Education and
Poverty Agenda
Review of Child Labour,
Education and
Poverty Agenda
INDIA
Country Report
2006
INDIA
Country Report
2006INDIA
Country Report
2006
Review of Child Labour,
Education and
Poverty AgendaACRONYMS
Abbreviation
APSE Annual Per Student Expenditure
DIET District Institute of Educational Training
DISE District Information on School Education
DPEP District Primary Education Project
DPIP District Poverty Initiative Programme
EDI Education Development Index
EFA Education For All
FDIs Foreign Direct Investments
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrolment Rate
GPI Gender Parity Index
ILO International Labour Organiation
IPEC International Programme for Child Labour Elimination
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
MNCs Multinational Companies
MPCE Monthly Per Capita Expenditure
NCERT National Council for Education Research and Training
NCLP  National Child Labour Project
NER Net Enrolment Rate
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisation
NIRD National Institute of rural Development
NPE National Policy on Education
NSSO National Sample Survey Organisation
ODA Official Development Assistance
PTR Pupil Teacher Ration
SCR Student Classroom Ratio
SERP Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty
SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
UN United Nations
US United States of America
UTs Union Territories
iii
FOREWORD
The Global March against Child Labour, since its inception has been thriving upon twin missions i.e.
elimination of child labour and guaranteeing good quality free education for all children as two sides of the
same coin. One cannot be achieved without the other. These too have to be addressed in the broader
context of socio-economic justice or poverty. It was our endeavour to demolish the age-old myth that poverty
causes and perpetuates child labour and illiteracy. The fact is the other way round. Illiteracy, child labour
and poverty form a classic triangular 'chicken & egg' relation. Therefore coherence in policy, coordination
amongst institutions and convergence in programs is necessary for attaining sustainable development and
justice.
It would be an over simplification, albeit romantic and even radical to propagate that opening of schools
alone can solve such complex problems of poverty and child labour including slavery and trafficking. In the
same manner those who only believe in economic growth and enforcement of legislation, are incomplete in
their approach. As a people's movement Global March has been campaigning and lobbying at all levels to
build a consensus on Triangular Paradigm of poverty alleviation, eradication of child labour and education
for all. Though child labour does not figure in the much talked about Millennium Development Goals or the
Dakar Framework of Action, half of these goals cannot be realized without paying heed to these interlinkages and coherence.
The activism and advocacy work has to be substantiated with academic and scientific research and
studies, not only for us to understand the complexities of these issues but to influence the stereotyped
thinking of the planners and policy makers. The two present case studies on India and Bangladesh is a
small step towards that direction.
India has already missed the targets of gender parity and covering all children aged 6-14 years in schools by
year 2005. The report informs that the children aged 6-14 were not attending any educational institutions
in India, which were higher than the education department's estimates of 25 million. It is shameful that the
magnitude of child labour has increased from 11.59 million in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001 (Census
2001). It requires an urgent multi-pronged approach and determined efforts on part of all, including
governments, ministries, other implementing agencies, political parties and civil society to end the scourge
of  child labour.  
It is my wish and hope that this will prove to be a starting point for further studies at international, national
and regional levels and the outcome could help in shaping inter-governmental, governmental and nongovernmental policies. I congratulate the team of researchers comprising of Dr. Sudhanshu Joshi,  Dr.
Bupinder Zutshi and Mr. Alok Vajpeyi on the splendid work done.
Kailash Satyarthi
Chairperson
Global March Against Child LabouriiiPREFACE AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The three key processes affecting the future of the world, in particular our children are elimination of child
labour, Education for All and poverty alleviation. A multi-dimensional approach consisting of awareness
building and consciousness raising, community participation, alternative and viable social and economic
rehabilitation, enforcement of national and international legal instruments in relation to children and other
similar plans, is needed for linking the elimination of child labour with overall poverty alleviation and
education strategies. Thus it is imperative that there is a synergy in policy planning and programmes that
address these three vital issues that affect the lives of millions of children for a sustainable development.
The present study aims to identify and critically examine the current programmes, action plans and
interventions of government of India, United Nations and other international donor agencies, NGOs and
civil society organizations towards child labour elimination and achieving Education for All goals in India. It
also evaluates the actual implementation results for addressing the issues of child labour, education and
poverty alleviation. The focus of the study is to examine the results based on information collected from
various government sources, UN and other international studies as well as through a field study in the
representative sample areas across the country. An attempt has been made to identify gaps between the
policy, programmes and actual implementation results in the field areas, in order to promote better
cooperation and understanding between policy planners, children and advocacy groups working on
children's behalf.
We acknowledge the financial support provided by NOVIB-Oxfam Netherlands and Bread for the World for
sponsoring the study report.
A large number of institutions and individuals have extended guidance, support, encouragement and
cooperation during the period of this research. We wish to acknowledge our sincere gratitude and thanks to
the following institutions and individuals.
 
Department of Primary Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development,
New Delhi, Ministry of Labour, Government of India, State Project Directors of Education from
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, Society for Elimination of Rural PovertyHyderabad, Bachpan Bachao Andolan, M.V. Foundation, National Institute of Rural
Development
Mr. Anjani Kumar Singh (State Project Director- DPEP and SSA, Bihar), Ms. Neelam Soniwala
(State Project Director- DPEP and SSA, Madhya Pradesh), Shri. K. Candramouli (State Project
Director- DPEP and SSA, Andhra Pradesh), Dr. Satyanarayana (Additional State Project
director- DPEP and SSA, Andhra Pradesh), A. Babji (SERP), Dr. Mondira Dutta ( JNU), G.P.
Wesley (Action for Child), Mr. Krishnamoorthy from ILO-Hyderabad, Mazher Hussain (COVA),
Venkata Reddy from M.V. Foundation, K. Suman Chandra from NIRD, Moin Khan, Principal,
DIET, Gaya District- Bihar, Mr. Jain, DPC, Raisen district, Neelam, APC, Rangareddi district,
Ajay Singh and Vithal Rao from BBA and SACCS, several field based NGOs , teachers, children
and parents of the children who were approached for field survey.
Anish Kapoor, P.P. Tripathi, and Puspahas for conducting field work in the study area. Vijay
Singh for design and graphics in the report. Ipshita Zutshi for helping in design of the report.
Sudhanshu Joshi  Bupinder Zutshi          Alok Vajpeyi
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
ivPage
                                                           
Acronyms i
Foreword ii
Preface and Acknowledgment iv
Executive Summary vi-vii
I Primary and Elementary Education 1-11
Ÿ Context and Introduction 1
Ÿ UEE Progress Report 2
Ÿ Policy and Programmes 3
Ÿ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 3
Ÿ Elementary Education Structure 5
Ÿ Budget Allocation 5
Ÿ Access, Reach and Equity 5
Ÿ Enrolments 6
Ÿ Gross Enrolment Ratio and Net
        Enrolment Ratio 7
Ÿ Gender Parity Index 8
Ÿ Infrastructure 8
Ÿ Quality of education 9
Ÿ Dropout Rates 10
Ÿ Private Expenditure 11
Ÿ Correlation Coefficient 11
II Child Labour  12-17
Ÿ Magnitude 12
Ÿ Regional Patterns 12
Ÿ Magnitude of Out-of-school Children 13
Ÿ Work activities 14
Ÿ Case Study of Hybrid Cotton Seed  14
Ÿ Child Labour Elimination :
         Government Policy 16
ú National Child Labour Policy 16
Ÿ International Response  17
ú The World Bank Response 17
Ÿ NGOs and Civil Society Response 17
III Poverty Situation 18-19
IV Child Labour- Human Deprivation Linkages 20-22
V Summing up, Results and Recommendation 23-26
Ÿ Elementary Education Issues 23
Ÿ Child Labour Issues 24
Ÿ Poverty, labour force and unemployment 25
Ÿ Child Labour-Human
         Deprivation Linkages 25
Ÿ Recommendations 25
ú International Community 25
ú Government of India 26
Tables and Annexure 27-31
References and Bibliography  32-36
CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES
AND MAPS
Page
                                                               
Section I
SSA Financial Share In US $ Million 4
SSA Budget Headwise 4
Education Budgetary Expenses 5
Annual Per Student Exp. on Ele. Education 2004 5
Primary Schools Per Village   6
Children Per School (5-14Years)   6
Enrollment in Primary School- 2004  7
Enrollment in Middle School-2004 7
Gross Enrollment Ratio in Primary  7
Gross Enrollment in Middle School-2004 7
GER and NER - 2004 7
Gender Parity Index- 2004    8
Gender Parity Index Of School     8
Insfrastructure    9
Student Classroom Ratio-2004   9
Quality Indicators  10
Percent Boys / Girls Attendance
Percent Male/ Female Teachers Trained  10
Droupout Rates Class 1-V  11
Droupout Rate Class VI-VIII   11
Annual Private Expenditure   11
Compomnent Wise Private Expenditure  11
Section II
Child LABOUR    12
Child Workers   12
Percent Child Workers ( Aged 5-14 Years)-2001  13
Percent Children Not attending School - 2001  13
Percent Children Out of School  13
Child Labour  Economic Activities 1991  14
Section III
Population Below Poverty Line   18
 Monthly PerCapita Consumer Expenditure  18
Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure in Rs.  19
Growth In Employment  19
Percent Labour Force  19
Section IV
Food Security and School Enrolment
and Dropout Rates  21
Percent Child Labour  21
Poverty Rates and Percent Child Workers
2000 and 2001  21
Poverty Rates and Percent Children Out of Schools   21
Problems If Child Stops Work (Parents Response)  21
Reasons for Child Labour  21
Maps
Poverty Incidence (Percent Population)   20
Percent Children our of school (6-11 years)  20Ÿ India has already missed the gender parity target and target of covering all children aged 6-14 years in
schools by 2005. Access, reach and gender parity deficit in schooling is observed, in the most
populated states of Bihar, Uttar Padesh, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and
Rajasthan. Significantly these states also have concentration of 66 percent of poverty incidence rates (
Planning Commission data)
Ÿ Sixty-five million children aged 6-14 years were not attending any educational institutions in India,
(Census- 2001, released in 2005) which were much higher than the education department estimates
of 25 million children (MHRD- 2002 data). This has made the entire claim of the education plans under
the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All) out of sync with the reality. It is therefore important that
the government brings out a new realistic road map addressing 65 million out of school children instead
of the 25 million on which the road map was developed earlier.
Ÿ Even the official data has admitted that the magnitude of child labour has increased from 11.59 million
in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001 (Census 2001). However unofficial sources claim between 25 to 30
million child workers, as significant number of child workers in domestic and agriculture sector are not
covered in the census. The government road map (under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan-plan of action/
National Child Labour Project/ INDUS Project) does not address effectively even these 12.66 million
child labourer.
Ÿ According to the Planning Commission 260 million people (26% of population) still live below the
poverty line in India. Eighty three percent of these poor people are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam. Significantly 84
percent of Out-of-school children (6-11 years-NSSO 55th Round, 1999-2000) and 72 percent of child
workers aged 5-14 years (Official Census data-2001) are also concentrated in these eight states.  A
close association (positive Correlation of 0.7325 and 0.4563) was found between Poverty incidence
with percent out-of-school children and Percent child workers respectively among the states of India.
Ÿ Multivariate analysis with support from the empirical data depicts education deprivation of the child
and parents, food deficit at home, unemployment status of any family member for more than 6 months
and families with no or less land explained 87 percent of child labour presence.
Ÿ The empirical study reflected households with “Always food deficit at home” (proxy indicator for poverty)
also recoded high proportion of child workers, out of school children and dropout rates from schools as
compared to the households having “Break-Even or Surplus food at homes”.
Ÿ The response of the parents for sending children to work and “problems faced by parent if child stops
work” again reinforces the poverty as one of the major cause for sending children to work. About 70%
and 50% parental responses indicate that children are pushed to work in order to maintain income
levels for sustenance and survival of the families, in the absence of appropriate wages for adults and
seasonality of work respectively. This supports the assertion that poverty is the key reason for
perpetuation of child labor. However on the other hand child labor is the primary cause of poverty, as it
pushes children early to premature work thereby denying children the opportunity to acquire the
education and skills they need to obtain decent work and incomes as adults. The links are mostly
straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the
principal common grounds. Even the latest ILO study reveals that children only earn 20 percent income
of an adult earning, while cost-benefit analysis for educating a child works out seven times returns.
Ÿ The government policy on child labour elimination has very little synergy and coordination at the
grassroots level with other welfare and poverty alleviation programmes. Moreover, the scale of
coverage of both the NCLP and the INDUS-USDOL project and the magnitude of child labour are
mismatch and it needs substantial scaling up.
Ÿ The prosecution and conviction rates in contravention of Child Labour Act-1986 were few, pointing out
poor implementation of the Act, due to administrative lapses and lacunae in the Act.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
viŸ Infrastructure and quality input and output indicators were much below the minimum standards in
majority of schools in India, especially in most populated states. The SSA experiment of recruiting parateachers (teachers without adequate qualification and training) to save financial allocations for
salaries and fill the gap of student/teacher ratio will affect quality component for EFA adversely.
Ÿ· The education budget was 4.2% of the total GDP in 2003, which is still low in view of the expected norm
of 6 percent of GDP. Public expenditure per annum per student was US$ 44, which works out as 8.5
percent of per capita GDP. This is lower than the average of 10-12 percent of per capita GDP among
low-income countries.
Ÿ The SSA programme (Indian Action Plan for EFA) has stipulated 33 per cent grants for civil works across
the country, which seems to be very low in the case of some states like; Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa,
as the existing infrastructure in terms of buildings and classrooms are few. The new expected
enrolments will increase student/ classroom ratio tremendously in these states.
Ÿ Improved access, infrastructure development, recruitment of lady teachers and availability of trained
teachers are positively correlated with better NER, GPI, retention rates and attendance rates of
students. Hence more investments needs in these aspects.
Ÿ Shortage of lady teachers has reflected in lower Gender Parity Enrolment Rates in the state of Bihar,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Ÿ Lack of toilet facilities in schools, especially separate toilet services for girls have affected GPI rates, as
states with lesser GPI rates also recorded less percent of schools with toilet facilities. The point was
further reinforced through the field observations.
Ÿ On an average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of
children aged 10-14 years drop-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to
awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of
schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family
livelihoods. The empirical field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14
years.
Ÿ Currently very little inputs are provided by the community in plan formulations and supervision. Thus
community ownership of schools is not visible.
Recommendation
Ÿ MDGs and child labor are intimately linked. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both
ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Indeed, it is
poverty associated with social injustice and social exclusion that is most closely related to child labor.
The absence of child labor from the MDG framework is a regrettable omission that needs to be
corrected with a sense of urgency if the intent is to achieve the MDGs.
Ÿ Scaling up of public investments, capacity building, domestic resource mobilization, and official
development assistance to achieve EFA goals within the target period and identify more “fast track”
countries for scale up of support.
Ÿ Incorporate multi-pronged approach by crafting effective synergy and coordination process between
central and state governments departments towards child labour elimination efforts as the elimination
of child labour requires multi pronged strategy of making schools accessible, providing quality
education in schools, attacking food deficit scenario at home through poverty alleviation programmes
and providing employment to adults.
Ÿ Ratify ILO Convention No. 138 concerning the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, ILO
Convention No. 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst
Forms of Child Labour.
vii1
Context and Introduction:
The issue of child labour cuts across policy boundaries and is cause and consequence of poverty,
displacements, illiteracy and adult unemployment. Extreme forms of poverty play a crucial role in
encouraging child labour. This implies that child labour cannot be addressed in isolation. Among factors
contributing to child labour are rapid population growth, adult unemployment, bad working conditions, lack
of minimum wages, exploitation of workers, low standard of living, low quality of education, lack of legal
provisions and enforcement, low capacity of institutions, gender discrimination, conceptual thinking about
childhood, etc. One or more of the above contribute to the large numbers of children working under
exploitative or hazardous conditions; Several studies have recognized child labour connections with human
deprivation- illiteracy, food insecurity, distress displacements, gender inequity, social and human underdevelopment, conflict situation and insecurity and poor governance.
SECTION I:
PRIMARY AND ELEMENTARY
EDUCATIONThe Millennium Development Goals (MDG), drawn from the
United Nations Millennium Declaration, was a seminal event in
the history of the United Nations. It constituted an
unprecedented promise by world leaders to address, as a single
package of peace, security, development, human rights and
fundamental freedoms. The world leaders agreed to a set of
measurable, time-bound targets known as the Millennium
Development Goals (MDG) to address crippling poverty and its
devastating consequences on increasing child labour,
education deprivation and overall human welfare. The MDG
goals of poverty alleviation, universal education, gender
equality and women empowerment are interlinked in a complex
and cross sector relationships with child labour problem.
Spurred on by the economic reforms since 1991, India has
surged as a significant economic power in the global economy.
Globalization and Structural Adjustment Programmes has given
rise to a vibrant middle class populations mostly dwelling in
towns and cities. A brand new generation of executives,
businessmen and industrialists has begun to compete in the
global market. Cell centers, information and communication
technology (ICT) companies, business process outsourcing
(BPO) firms, and premier educational institutions have not only
begun to offer world-class services, but have also boosted up
high rates of service exports. India seems to be surging ahead
with policies of generating economic growth with a per capita
1
GDP of US$ 515. The maturing of democratic processes and
political consensus among major political forces has given
positive signal to multinational companies (MNCs) and created
conducive condition for direct foreign investments (FDIs) which
has helped in linking Indian economy with the global economy.
Unfortunately the India's unfolding economic success is not
reaching to the poor. The agenda of attaining the MDG still
remain elusive for the majority of developing and under-
2
developed countries including India. . With just 10 years to go to
attain the MDG relating to poverty, universalization of
education, gender parity empowerment and reducing child
mortality rates, the projections derived from several studies
indicate mixed results and India is likely to fall behind the
targets in terms of majority of MDG goals related to social
3
development.
According to official (Planning Commission) figures, over 260
million people (26% population), still live below the country's
4
poverty line. Seventy five per cent of these were dwelling in
rural areas. The newly legislated National Rural Employment
5
Guarantee Act  , if implemented conscientiously, can bolster the
effort to banish hunger-poverty to some extent. However the
goal of universal education might seem a relatively
straightforward goal but it has proven as difficult as any as it is
linked with quality of education, elimination of child labour,
poverty alleviation programmes, peace and security and above
all good governance.
Universal Elementary Education: Progress Report:
Progress Report on
EFA in India:
Ÿ “It will be very difficult to meet the
government's goal of having all
children in India enrolled in
primary schools and completing
t h e   f u l l   c o u r s e   o f   p r i ma r y
schooling by 2007. The goal of
getting all children aged 6-14
years to complete eight years of
schooling by 2010 would appear
6
to be even more challenging”.
(The World Bank Report-2004)
Ÿ Initiative had been “…isolated and
7
weak”  , and “…there has never
been a solid framework for action
supporting the Initiative, nor has
there been a focus for action.
A d d i t i o n a l l y   t h e r e   we r e   few
negative consequences for not
8
a c t i ve l y   p a r t i c i p a t i n g ” .  ( E - 9
Initiative)
th
Ÿ India ranked 100 , (EDI value
0.741), out of 121 countries rated
in Education development Index. It
has improved EDI value from
0.696 in 2005 to 0.741 in 2006,
depicting marginal improvement
9
during last one year. It ranked
th rd
58 in total primary NER, 103 in
rd
adult literacy rate, 103 in gender
th
related EFA index and 111 in
surv i val   rate  to  g rade V.   I t
projected that India will fail to
meet the 2015 Dakar Framework
1 0
t a r g e t .  (   U N E S C O ,   E FA
Monitoring Report 2006)
Ÿ India's rank was 8th in terms of
complete basic education, 7th in
terms of state action for EFA
programmes, 6th in terms of
quality inputs, 9th in terms of
gender equity and 5th in terms of
overall equity among the 14
developing countries from Asia
11
Pacific. ( The Asian South Pacific
Bureau of Adult Education and
Global Campaign for Education
Report- 2005)
2Policy and programmes:
SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN:
The Ministry of Human Resource Development  Departments of primary and elementary education and
literacy at the centre, and the Ministry of Education- Department of primary education at the state/ UTs
level are responsible for elementary education. Major policies adopted were:
National Policy of Education (NPE) in 1986: It envisaged, Universal access and enrolment, Universal
retention of children up to 14 years of age, and Substantial improvement in the quality of education.
Programme of Action (POA) for universal elementary education in 1990. It resulted in shifting education
sector from state jurisdiction to concurrent jurisdiction, which paved the way for several centrally
sponsored schemes (CSSs) with financial allocations from central government. Some of the CSSs in
12 13
operation were Operation Blackboard  , District Primary Education Programmes  , Mid-day meal
14 15
scheme/ National programme for nutritional support to primary education  , Teachers education  ,
16 17
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidhalaya  and Janshala  programmes.
Adoption of Free and Compulsory Education Bill under Article 21-A. The bill is in the drafting stage and is
likely to be placed in the parliament for approval by the end of December 2005.
The programmes and interventions  for elementary education in the tenth plan are Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA), National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), Teacher
Education Programme and Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)
The SSA is centrally sponsored scheme for universal elementary education to achieve Dakar Education for
All goals. Under the SSA, government of India is committed to provide financial allocation to the states/ UTs
as per the approved district plans prepared after a thorough base line survey conducted for the
identification of out-of-school children. A total of US$ 3500 million have been stipulated for the SSA project,
18 .
with contribution from central government, international agencies and state/UTs governments (Fig 1)
The funds have been stipulated under different heads to cover all major components of SSA (Fig 2). The
assistance under the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is on an 85:15 sharing arrangement between
the Central Government and the State Government during the Ninth Plan (1997-2002), at 75:25 during the
19
Tenth Plan (2002-07), and at 50:50 thereafter  . In addition the states and UTs will continue to provide
financial allocations under the already existing state budgets for elementary education.
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan  Goals
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
All children in school, EGS / AIS  School  by 2003;
All children to complete five years of primary schooling by 2007;
All children complete eight years of schooling by 2010;
Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life;
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at
elementary education level by 2010
Universal retention by 2010
3SSA Financial Share In US $ Million
1579
500
346
200
875
Indian Central Government IDA
UK Dfid European Commission
Local State Grants
Fig. 1
SSA Budget Headwise
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Civil Works
Maintenance
Intervention
books for girls
Innovative Action
School Grant
TLE
BRC
Training
Salaries
Management
Others
Percent
Fig. 2
SSA- Main Features and Broad Strategies
Ÿ SSA is Government of India programme launched in 2001 for achievement of (UEE) in a time bound
manner in a mission mode. It covers 193 million children, 3.3 million teachers and nearly 1 million
schools and Alternative Schools spread over 1.1 million habitations in 28 States and 7 Union Territories.
Ÿ SSA is an integrated, comprehensive scheme in partnership with State Governments, Local Self
Governments, the community and the civil society. Its aim is to universalize elementary education by
community ownership of the school system, active involvement of local self governments and
grassroots level structures.
Ÿ It aims to provide useful and quality elementary education to all children in the 6 -14 age group by 2010
through existing primary and upper primary school structure supplemented by:
a. National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL): The programmes are for
educationally backward blocks (currently 2656 block). It envisages starting girl-child friendly
schools for under privileged/ disadvantaged girls. It envisages free text books, uniform and other
stationery for girls.
b. Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Education (EGS & AIE) is specially
designed for areas of school-less habitations and out-of-school children. The scheme supports
flexible strategies through bridge courses, residential camps, drop-in centers, summer camps,
remedial coaching, etc. with the aim of mainstreaming them in the primary/ elementary schools
after the initial schooling in EGS/ AIS schooling.
Ÿ Institutional reforms in the states to improve efficiency of the delivery system
Ÿ Sustainable financing
Ÿ Community ownership of school based interventions through effective decentralization.
Ÿ Institutional capacity building for improvement in quality.
Ÿ Community based monitoring with full transparency in all aspects of implementation
Ÿ Community based approach to planning with habitation as a unit of planning.
Ÿ Special focus on girls, scheduled caste (SC) /scheduled tribes (ST) working children, urban
deprived children, children with special needs, children in marginalized families and children in
hardest to reach groups.
Ÿ Thrust on quality and making education relevant.
Ÿ Recognition of the critical role of the teacher and focus on the human resource development
needs of teachers.
Ÿ Preparation of District Elementary Education Plans reflecting all governmental and nongovernmental investments.
Broad Strategies
4Elementary Education Structure:
Budgetary Allocations:
Access, Reach and equity:
The school education structure in India constitutes the primary stage (Class I-V), elementary/upper primary
stage (Class VI-VIII) and high and higher secondary stage (Class IX-XII).  A uniform structure of school
education, based on minimum levels of learning curriculum, identified by the National Council of Education
and Research Training (NCERT) at each class level, up to the 10+2 system has been adopted by all the
States (29) and Union Territories (UTs 7) of India. Child aged 6 years in enrolled in class-I
Public expenditures on education, both as a percentage of GDP and as a percentage of total government
expenditure, have shown insignificant increase up to 1990s, as the states and Union Territories ( UTs) were
primarily responsible for education sector. However the implementation of centrally sponsored educational
schemes after 1990 increased budgetary allocations for education sector to over 4 percent of total GDP in
2001-02 (Fig 3). This compares favorably with the low-income countries' average of 3 percent, although it
falls short of India's own target of 6 percent by the end of Ninth plan. As a percentage of total government
expenditure, education expenditure increased from about 8 percent to about 14.6 percent over this period;
the latter is on the lower side of the range of public education spending of low-income countries.  Average
spending per student is about $44, or 8.5 percent of per capita GDP, which is lower than the average of 10-
12 percent of per capita GDP among low-income countries. There is much variation across states. Regional
variations exist in per student spending in India. It ranges from $27 in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal to
$179 in Goa. States which have high per student spending are Goa, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala,
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. Very low student expenditure was in West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,
20
Bihar, Karnataka, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. All these states have high proportion of out-of-school
children as well as high magnitude and proportion of child labour. (Fig 4).
Between 1950-51 and 2003, the number of primary schools in India increased more than three-fold, from
about 210,000 to a little over 664,040 schools and the number of upper primary schools has increased by
almost 15 times from 13,600 to 219,626 schools.  According to the District Information on School
Education (DISE- 2004) there were 931,471 primary and upper primary schools in India. More than 95
India
Education Budgetary Expenses
(1951 to 2002)
0
5
10
15
20
1951-52 1970-71 1990-91 2000-
2001
2001-
2002
Percent
Share of EducationExpenditure
Share of Education Expenditure to GDP
Fig. 3
India and States
Annual Per Student Expenditure on
Elementary Education - 2004
68
31.5
42
32
31
27
31
30
28
32
26
29
27
33
25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
H.P
Gujrat
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Assam
Maharashtra
Haryana
Karnataka
Rajasthan
Orrisa
M.P
U.P
A.P
Bihar
West Bengal
Figures in US $
Fig. 4
5
Source: MHRD21 ,
percent population has access to primary education within a distance of one kms. however several
mountainous regions and tribal areas lack access to primary schools even within the distance of 2 to 3
22
kilometers.
In spite of phenomenal increase in the number of primary and elementary schools a significant regional
variation still exist in the access of school. The increase in number of schools is being outpaced by increase
in the number of habitations and the school going child population. Average number of schools per village
was 1.15, however school per village varied from 0.60 in case of Jharkhand to 2.88 for Tripura. The states
with less than one primary school per village were in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Chattisgarh, Bihar and Uttranchal (Fig. 5)
23
The child population threshold (Available number of children, whether enrolled or out-of-school, aged 6-
14 years) per primary and upper primary school was 242 for the country. Among the large states it was
highest for Bihar (442), Uttar Pradesh (314), West Bengal (297), and Jharkhand (286). However Kerala and
24
Haryana also recorded high child population threshold, but for different reasons  A significant proportion
of children are still out-of-schools in the identified large states, hence the enrolment drive under the SSA
will put more pressure on the existing schools in the states. Thus additional schools and classrooms need
to be constructed in the deficit states to attain the target of the SSA and provide comfortable student/
classroom ratio in these states. (Fig 6). (Refer Table 1)
Enrolment in primary level of education has increased six times from 19.2 million to 113.9 million during
1950-51 to 2001-2002. The increase in case of girl enrolment had been ten times from 5.4 million in 1950-
51 to 52 million in 2002 (Fig 7 and 8).  The DISE-2004 data indicates that 142 million children were
25
enrolled in primary and upper primary schools throughout the country.
26
The Gross enrollment rate (GER)  in primary education was mere 43% in 1950-51 and it reached 96
percent in 2003-04. However GER in upper primary stage continues to  be as low as 60%, thereby
indicating lower retention rates and significant drop-out rates from class I to class VIII (Fig 9 and 10). Gross
primary enrollment rates varied from a low of 65% in Uttar Pradesh to a high of 110 % for Chattisgarh in
2004. Thus there exists inequity in GER across the states especially in case of four major populated states
of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Significantly these states also have high concentration
of incidence of poverty (40 percent) and out of school children (39.7 percent).
Enrollments:
Fig. 5
Primary Schools Per Village
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Uttar Pradesh
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Punjab
Orissa
Maharashtra
M.P.
Kerela
Karnataka
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Chhatisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Assam
Fig. 6
Children Per School (5-14Years)
0 100 200 300 400 500
Uttar Pradesh
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Punjab
Orissa
Maharashtra
M.P.
Kerela
Karnataka
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Chhatisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Assam
6
Source: DISE-NIEPA 2004 Source: DISE-NIEPA 2004Fig. 8
India
Enrollment in Middle School-1950-2002
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02*
Years
E n r o l ml e n t i n M i lli o n
Middle   Boys Middle   Girls Middle   Total
India
Gross Enrollment Ratio in Primary
School-2004
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-
2001*
2001-
2002*
2003-04
R a t i o
Primary Boys Primary Girls Primary Total
GER and NER - 2004
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Uttar Pradesh
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Orissa
Maharashtra
M.P.
Kerela
Karnataka
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Chhatisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Assam
GER NER
India
Enrollment in Primary School- 1950-2002
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02*
years
E n r o l m l e n t i n m i l l i o n
     Primary  Boys     Primary  Girls     Primary  Total
Fig. 7
Fig. 9
India
Gross Enrollment in Middle School-2004
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1950-
51
1970-
71
1990-
91
2000-
2001*
2001-
2002*
2003-
04
Ratio
Boys Girls Total
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Net Enrollment Rate:
27 th
The Net enrollment rate data (NER)  available from the 55 round of the National Sample Survey
Organization (NSSO) for the year 1999-2000 indicates that the NER at the primary stage for 6-11 years was
28
78% and there existed significant regional variation in the NER.  However the DISE-2004 data depicts
NER of 73 per cent for primary level and 60 per cent in upper primary stage. The NER was low in case of
most populated states of Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand and
7
Source: MHRD Source: MHRD
Source: MHRD Source: MHRD
Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004Gender Parity Index- 2004
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Uttar Pradesh
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Punjab
Orissa
Maharashtra
M.P.
Kerela
Karnataka
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Chhatisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Assam
India
GPI
India
Gender Parity Index Of School
Enrollment-2004
0.41
0.63
0.75
0.82 0.83 0.84
0.22
0.45
0.61
0.75
0.77 0.79
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1950-51  1970-71  1990-91  2000-
2001*
2001-
2002*
2003-
2004
Index
Primary Upper Primary
Rajasthan. Thus in spite of the SSA in-operation since 2002, not much dent has been made to increase age
appropriate child enrolments. The NER reflects a close association with the most poverty states and states
with high child labour and out-of-school children as in case of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand. (Fig 11)
The overall gender parity enrolment index was 0.93 according to the DISE-2004 data. The data indicates
that India has made impressive gains in reducing the male-female gap in the gross primary enrollment rate
in the last fifty years. The gender gap in GER narrowed down between 1950 and 2004, as the GER for girls
rose from 25% to 87 %, while it rose from 65% to 105% for boys.
However regional variation still persist as GPI is greatest in Bihar, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh, where the gross primary enrollment rate for females is about two-thirds or less than that
for males. On the other hand, there is parity or near-parity between male and female gross primary
29
enrollment rates in Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim and Kerala. (Fig 12 and 13)
One of the factors affecting the GPI is the proportion of lady teachers in the schools, due to prevailing social
and cultural consideration. The DISE-2004 data point out glaring gender gap, as percent lady teachers
were very low in Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, west Bengal, Chattisgarh
and Orissa and ( 17 to 31%). On the other hand states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu had high proportion of
lady teachers (68-78%). States with lower GPI had also lower per cent of lady teachers. Shortage of lady
teachers has reflected in lower Gender Parity Enrolment Rates in the state of Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. This supports the requirement of recruiting lady teachers to improve the
GPI.
One of the reasons stated for low GPI in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh has been non-availability of
schools near habitations, as parents don't want girls to walk longer distance and also they want lady
teachers for cultural reasons.  Although significant improvement has been made in GPI, yet it can be
improved in the deficit states through provision of school access near habitations and recruitment of lady
teachers.
Inadequate infrastructure in schools has been major reason for lower enrolments and GPI. Due to initial
heavy capital investment, majority of primary and elementary schools in India lack these basic
Gender Parity Enrolment Index (GPI):
Infrastructure:
Fig. 12 Fig. 13
8
Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004 Source: MHRDInsfrastructure
0 20 40 60 80 100
Uttar Pradesh
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Punjab
Orissa
Maharashtra
M.P.
Kerela
Karnataka
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Chhatisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Assam
India
Percent Schools
DrinkingWater Toilet
Student Classroom Ratio-2004
0 20 40 60 80 100
Uttar Pradesh
W. Bengal
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Punjab
Orissa
Maharashtra
M.P.
Kerela
Karnataka
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Chhatisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Assam
India
Students
Fig. 14 Fig. 15
infrastructure facilities. In a survey conducted by Ministry of education in 1992, large proportion of primary
schools in the country are devoid of permanent structures (40%), no structures (9%), black-boards (40%),
drinking water (60%), library facility (70%), play grounds (53%), and toilets (89%).
A significant proportion of schools (35%) have only single teacher to teach three or four different classes.
Many of these centers remain without any teacher for varying periods of time. Even teachers are sub-
30
contracted for teaching work. The PROBE study found that 31% primary school did not have any
31
classrooms, while only 58% schools had two or more than two class rooms. The DISE-2004 data also
indicates infrastructure deficit in terms of student/ classroom ratio (SCR) and availability of schools with
drinking water and toilet facilities ( Fig 14 and 15).
Several studies have pointed out close association between non-availability of toilet facilities and lower GPI.
The present study again reinforces the relationship as states with lower GPI also recorded lack of toilet
facilities especially separate toilet facility for girls. The visits to the schools do point out some progress in the
provision of infrastructure in the schools, especially after the operation of the SSA as provision of toilets and
drinking water facilities has been given priority in the SSA project. Other basic infrastructure like furniture,
teaching learning equipment and electricity facility is low or more or less absent in majority of schools
especially in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan.
Providing basic primary quality education has been one of the major goals of Dakar Education for All
32 33
declaration. The studies conducted by NCERT  , Aikara  and NCERT-2002, point out poor performance in
learning achievements in mathematics, reading comprehension and environmental studies throughout
the country. Some of the inputs required for improving the quality of education are weak especially, pupil/
teacher ratio and availability of trained teachers. The SSA programme has partly addressed this important
component by strengthening the existing District Educational Training Centers (DIETs) and developing
block and cluster resource centers. Specific budgetary allocations are provided for the training
programmes and providing teaching-learning equipments and materials. However the recruitment of new
qualified and trained teachers has taken a back seat and the SSA has opted for recruitment of parateachers (to be trained in 10-15 days) in order to save huge budgetary allocations for salary of teachers.
These para-teachers are paid paltry salaries (US$ 40-45 per month). Hence quality component is being
compromised in the SSA.
The pupil/ teacher ratio (PTR) remained constant at 43 from 1990 to 2002 due to lower recruitments and
34
strong enrolment drive. The TPR was high for Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The
Quality of Education:
9
Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004 Source: DISE-NIEPA-2004Profile of a Para Teacher
Under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan- Plan of Action, states have been asked to recruit
one para-teacher for every 40 new students enrolled in schools. These teachers are
also referred as community volunteers, who would volunteer to teach the children at
a most modest monthly remuneration of (US$ 35 to 40 per month). Minimum
th
qualification of these para-teachers is fixed as 10 pass. Specific priority is given for
scheduled caste/ scheduled tribe and backward classes populations for
recruitments. The para-teachers are recruited either by Panchyats (who have very
little education experience) or by education department at the block level. After
recruitments these para-teachers are given short course training of 10-15 days in
the respective block/ cluster resource centers. The training covers basic attitudes
required for engaging children in classes, however knowledge of providing
specialized approach for learning basic required competencies are not provided
through this training.
proportion of trained teacher also depicts strong regional imbalances. This depicts that low premium being
attached to quality of education by the government which encourages parents not to send their children to
schools and instead send them for work. North east states, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh had lesser trained teachers, while the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and
Andhra Pradesh have high proportion of trained teachers.
One of the major fallout of poor quality of education and extreme poverty of families is higher push-
35
out/drop-out rates. The dropout rates  estimated by government sources depict some improvement but it
still needs to be improved substantially. The drop out rates has decreased from 64.9% in 1960-61 to 39.0%
in 2001-2002 in primary classes while it has decreased from 78.3% to 54.6% during 2001-2002 in the
upper primary stage (fig 18 and 19). The dropout rates from class I-V, observed from the sample survey
indicates some improvement, as the dropout rates for the cohort selected in the survey was 22% for girls
and 20% for boys in the three selected states. Andhra Pradesh recorded higher dropout rates for girls
(25%), while boys drop out rate was high for Bihar and Madhya Pradesh (23% and 21% respectively). The
empirical study conducted in the three states depicts very high dropout rates among households with
“Always deficit food “at home. The poverty and distress displacements encourage parents to withdraw
children from schools and enter them in work. Hence human resource developments take a back seat,
thereby perpetuating poverty and generating child labour.
Dropout Rates:
10
Quality Indicators
68
35 35 37
69
44
36 37
0
20
40
60
80
Bihar MP AP All
Teacher/ Pupil Ratio Classroom /student ratio
Percent Boys / Girls Attendance
Percent Male/ Female Teachers
Trained
79
72
75 75
81
69
83
77
23
54
72
48
22
56
78
61
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Bihar MP AP All
Boys Girls Males Females
Fig 16 (Based 0n Sample Survey) Fig 17 (Based 0n Sample Survey)
Source: Sample Survey 2005
Source: Sample Survey 2005Droupout Rates Class 1-V
0
20
40
60
80
1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2001-
2002
Percent
Boys Girls All
Droupout Rate Class VI-VIII
0
20
40
60
80
100
1960-
61
1970-
71
1980-
81
1990-
91
2001-
2002
Percent
Boys Girls All
Fig. 18 Fig. 19
Private Expenditure:
Correlation Analysis:
nd
Contrary to the belief that primary education is free in India, the NSSO 52 round in 1995-96, indicates an
annual per student expenditure (APSE) of Rs. 501 (US$ 12)
for primary level and Rs. 915 (US$ 21) for upper primary
36
level.  A significant rural urban variations were observed in
the per student expenditure both at primary and upper
primary levels.  In the case of rural areas, the APSE was Rs.
297 ( US$ 7) for primary level and Rs. 640 ( US$ 15) for
upper primary level, while in the case of urban areas the
APSE was Rs. 1142 ( US$ 27) for primary level and Rs. 1529
( US$ 36) for upper primary level. The gender gap in the
APSE was slightly in favour of boys as compared to girls the
fractile distribution of APSE further suggests inequity
among different strata of income groups. The APSE for
lowest 20% fractile was as low as Rs 197 (US$ 5) for primary
level, while it was Rs. 1150 (US$ 27) for top 20 percent
fractile at primary level. At Upper primary level the APSE for
lower 20% fractile was Rs 426 (US$ 10), while it was Rs.
1547 (US$ 36) for upper 20% fractile. Thus in addition to
lower APSE, the in equity also existed among rural/ urban as
well as among different strata of income groups. The
component wise expenditure depicts that 30% is paid in
terms of admission fee, tuition fee and exam fee, 26% is
spent on books and stationery, 24% on uniform and shoes
and 14 % on private couching. The data from the field survey
also reflected similar proportion of expenses under various
heads, however proportion spent on private coaching was
much higher, thereby suggesting that parents have started
paying attention for improving quality education.
A correlation matrix of the selected indicators was worked out to measure the level of association among
37
the selected indicators in the states and UTs of India, based on the DISE-2004 data.  The results of the
correlation matrix suggests improved access( number of schools per village), infrastructure development
(per cent schools with toilet facilities), recruitment of lady teachers and percent teachers trained are
correlated with better NER, GPI, high retention rates and attendance rates of students. Thus enrolment and
quality of schools can be improved by increasing the access and reach of schools and by improving
infrastructure in schools. (Refer Table 2)
Fig. 20
Annual Private Expenditure
Per Student 1995-96
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Boys Girls Both Boys Girls Both Boys Girls Both
Rural Urban R+U
US $
Primary U.Primary
Fig. 21
Compomnent Wise Private Expenditure
0 10 20 30 40
Tuition, Exam, Other Fee
Books and Stationery
Uniform, shoes
Transport
Private Coaching and Others
Survey - 2005 U.P
Survey - 2005 Primary
NSSO 52nd Round Data U.P
NSSO 52nd Round Data Primary
11
Source: MHRD Source: MHRD
Source: NSSO 1999-2000
Source: NSSO 1999-2000SECTION II:
CHILD LABOUR
Magnitude:
Regional Pattern:
There are varying estimates of working children magnitude in India due to differing concepts and methods
38
of estimation. The Census of India-1991 recorded 11.20 million working children, while the Census-2001
has recorded 12.66 million working children in the ages of 5-14 years (Fig. 22). Ninety percent of the
children workers were from rural areas. The proportion of working children to the child population aged 5-
14 years, registered a marginal decline from 5.4 percent to 5 per cent during 1991-2001.
The increase in the magnitude of child labour during 1991-2001 was in spite of tremendous efforts by
government, United Nations and other international agencies and NGOs for universalizing primary and
elementary education and removing children from work through education and other rehabilitative
interventions. The results depicts that only education interventions without integrating poverty alleviation
programmes in the policy may not yield desired results of reducing child labour.
Andhra Pradesh state witnessed synergy of efforts between government, ILO, trade unions and NGOs
during 1991-2001 in scaling up education initiatives for out-of-school children, but the strategy was not
effective enough as the children dropped-out without completing the full cycle of elementary education and
joined back in the workforce. The 2001 reported marginal decline in the magnitude of child labour during
1991-2001, but it still recorded the second highest magnitude of child workers after Uttar Pradesh. The
field work conducted in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh strengthens the view as a significant
proportion of children have dropped out from schools without completing full cycle of elementary
education. Majority of the dropped out children were from extreme poverty families and preferred children
to work for family sustenance. Thus the policy makers and planners need to incorporate and integrate
poverty alleviation and strengthening livelihood opportunities along with education initiatives to release
children from work.
The regional variation of child workers suggests that high magnitude is found in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh in 2001. Among the larger states the proportion of working
children in the age group of 5-14 years was high in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Karnataka. (Table No.3)
India
Child LABOUR
10.75
13.64
11.28
12.66
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Years 71 Years 81 Years 91 Years 2001
Mill oi n
Child Workers
0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerela
Madhya Pradesh
Maharastra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamilnadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Jharkhand
Chattisgarh
2001 1991
Fig. 22
12
Source: Census of India Source: Census of IndiaMagnitude of Out-of-School
Children:
Al l   chi ldren not  at tending
schools are potential child
workers and they need to be
a d d r e s s e d   i n   a   h o l i s t i c
framework.  According to the
latest census figures of 2001
released in August 2005, out of
226 million children aged 6-14
years, 65.3 million children
(29%) were not attending any
educational institutes at the
3 9
t ime of   the  survey.  The
proportion of out-of-school boys
was 25%, while it was 33% for
girls. In spite of the official age
of 6 years for enrolling children
i n   c l a s s   I ,   a   s i g n i f i c a n t
proportion of children aged 6
years (60 percent) were not
a t te n d i n g   s c h o o l s .   O n   a n
average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of children aged
10-14 years drop-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to awareness children get
enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of schools either due to poor
education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family livelihoods. The field survey
results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14 years. (Fig 23 and 24 )
India
Percent Children Not attending School - 2001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 to
Age Group 14
P e rc e n t
Both  Boys Girls
Fig. 23
Percent Children Out of School
18 17 18
16
15
25
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Bihar MP AP
Boys Girls
Fig. 24 (Based on sample Survey)
Magnitude of child workers (Census 2001) figures with the Out-of-school children (Education
Department Household Survey Data for SSA, 2002) figures depicts serious anomalies. In the
case of Andhra Pradesh the Census data recorded 0.943 million main child workers aged 5-14
years, while the Education data recorded only 0.642 million out-of-school children for Andhra
Pradesh. Similarly In the case of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh  the Census
data recorded 1.36 million,1.26 million and 1.06 million child workers (main + marginal workers)
aged 5-14 years respectively, while the Education data recorded only 0.642 million, 1.06 million
and 0.742 million out-of-school children respectively for Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh. Therefore out-of-school children estimated by the Education Department survey for
SSA, seem to be grossly under-estimated and it requires review and subsequently SSA budget
estimates need revision.
13
Percent Child Workers ( Aged 5-14 Years)-2001
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AP
Assam
Bihar
Chatisgarh
Gujarat
Haryana
HP
Karnataka
J&K
Kerala
MP
Maharastra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
UP
W.Bengal
Pondi.
India
Source: Census of India
Source: Census of India, Social Table No. 11
Source: Sample Survey 2005Work Activities:
Case Study of Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh
Out of the 12.66 million working children in 2001, about 5.77 million children were classified as 'main
40
workers' and the rest 6.88 million children were as 'marginal workers'  . Most of the working children are
engaged in agricultural activities as wage labourers or cultivators. Manufacturing, processing, servicing
and repairs in the household industries engaged 3 % child workers, while 3% child workers were engaged in
factory work and the other 15% working children were engaged in service sector, mostly as domestic
41
workers, and in small trade activities ( Fig 5) . Working children are usually classified in terms of work
situations in domestic work, non-domestic and non-monetary work, bonded labour work, wage work in
hazardous and non-hazardous occupations and commercial sexual exploitation work. Each work situation
has deep-rooted consequences on their human rights, healthcare and future economic production
processes. Some of the hazardous processes and occupations, where child labourers are found in large
numbers are:
42
Hybrid cottonseed production is characterized as highly labour-intensive mating method, and girl children
are engaged in most of its operations. Children are employed on a long-term contract basis through
advances and loans extended to their parents by local seed producers, who have agreements with the
43
large national and multinational seed companies.  Children are made to work long hours and are paid
less than market and official minimum wages. They are also exposed to poisonous pesticides used in high
44
quantities in cottonseed cultivation.  The India Committee of the Netherlands study  indicated that, the
situation of child labour in the farms producing hybrid seed for multi national companies (MNCs) is not
significantly different from other farms producing seed for local companies. “Out of 174 farms surveyed, 44
farms produce seed for MNCs.  A total of 272 children were employed in these farms during 2003-04 crop
seasons. Children constitute 53.5% of total workforce.  On an average 5.5 children were employed in one
acre seed farm. Girls account for nearly 72% of the total child labour population”.
Hazardous Occupations
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Agriculture hybrid cotton
seed production
Agricultural allied processes
Bidi making, making thread
from silk cocoon
Mining  Mica and slate
Manufac tur ing  proces ses
carpet weaving, silk and
other cotton weaving, leather,
electric bulb making, glass
and bangle making , sports
especially  ball stitching gem
and diamond cutting and
polishing, lock making
Construction- manual labour,
brick making and chipping,
stone breaking
Service industries  domestic
services, transport and garages,  hotels and restaurants, sexual abuse and exploitation
Agriculture
Cultivation
Manufacturing
(HH)
Factory Workers
Others
Source: Census of India 1991
India
Child Labour Economic Activities 1991
44%
35%
3%
3%
15%
PERCENT
14Hybrid Cotton Seeds
Crush Stone for Road Making
Bidi (Cigar) Making
Electric Bulb
15Child Labour Elimination: Government Policy and Initiatives
The Ministry of Labour at the centre and the corresponding ministry at the states are responsible for
adopting constitutional, statutory and development measures, that are required to eliminate child labour.
45
Six ILO conventions related to child labour have been ratified. However ratification of the ILO Convention
No. 182 is still pending.
Child Labour Act  1986: It seeks to ban employment of children working in certain hazardous occupations;
46
the hazardous occupations are identified and reviewed by the expert committee from time to time. The
Act also regulates the work of children in certain other industries. However there is no specific or all
encompassing prohibition on the work for children. There are sectors such as domestic service, agriculture,
urban and rural informal sectors where children work in large numbers.
Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976: The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act purports to
abolish all debt agreements and obligations arising out of India's longstanding bonded labor system. It
frees all bonded laborers, cancels any outstanding debts against them, prohibits the creation of new
bondage agreements, and orders the economic rehabilitation of freed bonded laborers by the state.
The Supreme Court directions in 1996: It gave directions for immediate identification of children in
hazardous occupations and their subsequent rehabilitation, including providing appropriate education to
the released children.
The National Child Labour Policy:
The National Child Labour Policy- 1987 addresses the complex issue of child through the legislative action
plan by implementing Child labour-Act 1986 and project-based action plan in areas of high concentration of
child labour. Under the project-based action plan the released children from the hazardous occupations
are provided educational services in specially designed Non-formal education centers under the centrally
sponsored National Child Labour Project (NCLP). The NCLP is currently in operation in 100 districts in 13
states, in the areas of high concentration of child labour throughout the country.  Till September 2004-05,
4077 special NFE schools are in operation throughout the country, with a total enrolment of 203,850
children.
Analysis of the implementation of Child Labour Act-1986 reveals that Act has several loopholes,
because of which conviction rates are low. Only 1543 prosecutions have been registered, out of which
47
only 278 were convicted and 181 cases were acquitted, while the other cases are still pending. The
onus of proving the age of child for the administration is difficult. The law should put the onus of proving
age of employee on the employer. Moreover the provision of child can work in family units also makes it
difficult to prosecute the offender.
The policy envisages general development programme for families, but very little co-ordination and
synergy was evinced at the grassroots level to identify the parents of target groups and provide benefits
of poverty alleviation scheme on priority basis.
The vocational training provided to the enrolled children under the NCLP has not been very useful as no
synergy and coordination was observed with the poverty alleviation programmes of the rural
development ministry to provide employment avenues or marketing support to the parents of the
children as envisaged in the NCLP.
The scale of support provided through the NCLP and the magnitude of child labour are mismatch and
needs substantial scaling up.
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
16International Response
Non-Governmental Organizations and Civil Society Response:
The UN agencies  and other international bi-lateral and multi-lateral agencies support government of India
and a large number of NGOs in developing micro projects for releasing child labour from hazardous
occupations and providing educational support to released children and develop capacity building and
provide livelihood support to families through vocational training. ILO has taken significant initiatives under
the IPEC programme by supporting as many as 175 major projects against child labour. Currently ILO is
targeting 80,000 children at risk of hazardous employment in brick manufacturing, stone quarrying, bidi
manufacturing, footwear manufacturing, fireworks manufacturing, manufacturing of matches, silk
manufacturing, lock making, brassware and glassware production through the INDUS project. The project
also addresses the employment generation and skills development needs of 10,000 parents. It seeks to
work with two major programmes of the Government of India: the NCLPs and the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(SSA).
The World Bank:
The World Bank has developed successful partnership with government of India to create the environment
for broad based social and economic growth, which is an essential element of the process of eliminating
48
child labor. A Review of World Bank Lending for Children and its Bearing on Child Labour  indicated that
the World Bank and Asian Development Bank supported six major projects related to primary and
elementary education in India, having a credit of US$ 1239 million. Major objective of the projects was
improving physical access to schools, developing infrastructure, supporting quality and learning outcomes
and supporting policy change and capacity building.  (Table No. 4)
The World Bank also supported District Poverty Innovation Projects (DPIPs) in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu during the period 2000-2005. These projects have a special
component on release and rehabilitation of hard to reach children and for creating employment
opportunities for the parents of these hard to reach children.
NGO movement in India has been very strong in creating pressure on government to address the social
development issues and create awareness for child rights. The Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA) and its
partner's organizations under the banner of South Asian Coalition on Child Servitude (SACCS) have been in
the forefront for creating awareness towards child rights. The major activities of  BBA and SACCS partners
has been to release and withdraw children  from the worst forms of labour particularly from bondage and
forced labor, through direct action, secret raids, legal intervention, persuasion and pressure building while
ensuring their social, psychological, economic and statutory rehabilitation through quality transitory
rehabilitation measures and state efforts.  Keeping in view the holistic vision for child rights and child
development Bal Mitra Gram- BMG (Child Friendly Village strategy is extended in 75 villages as a
demonstration for other replicable projects) intervention has been one of the successful project of BBA.
Other NGOs like M.V. Foundation, Pratham, CREDA, Project Mala, CINI-ASHA and other regional NGOs have
demonstrated project based approach. The main focus has been to provide educational support to out-ofschool children, through bridge course/ camp schools/ non formal schools and mainstream the children in
formal schools.
17Poverty Index:
Labour force, employment and unemployment:
Consumer Expenditure:
According to official (Planning Commission) figures, over 260 million people (26 per cent population), still
49
live below the country's poverty line. Seventy five per cent of these were dwelling in rural areas. Although
the proportion of people below poverty line has depicted significant improvement during the period 1993-
94 to 1999-2000 but the decline was lower than the projected poverty proportion of 18.61% by 2001 by
the IX Plan document of Planning Commission (Fig 24). The shortfall was because of uneven performance
among the most populous states of Orissa (47%), Bihar (43%), Madhya Pradesh (37%), Uttar Pradesh
(36.5%), Assam (36%) and West Bengal (27%). These states together account for 67 percent of poor
population in India.Behind these figures are human faces, human pain and suffering and a moral duty to
50
make poverty a thing of the past and create equity in development programmes.
During the period 1983 to 1999-2000, the percentage of persons in the labour force at the national level
declined from 66.5 per cent in 1983 to 61.8 per cent in 1999-2000. For the males this declined from 87.1
per cent to 83.5 per cent and for the females from 44.4 per cent to 38.5 per cent during this period. The
growth in employment for persons employed in the age group 15 years and above on the usual principal
and subsidiary status has also declined significantly in the nineties vis-à-vis the eighties. During the period
(1993-94 to 1999-2000), the corresponding growth rates were 1.6 per cent on the whole and 1.3 and 2.4
respectively for rural and urban areas. Given the increase in the labour force, and a decline in the growth of
51
employment in the nineties vis-à-vis eighties has increased the incidence of unemployment.  Incidence of
unemployment has increased at the national level from 2 per cent in 1983 to 2.3 per cent in 1999-2000.
There was an increase in the incidence of unemployment both for males and females on the whole and in
particular for rural areas.
The average monthly per capita consumer expenditure stood at Rs.554 ($13) in rural areas and Rs. 1022
52
($24) in urban areas in 2003. Significantly a large scale disparity was found in the MPCE among the
regional divisions of India. The MPCE among the different stratum, depicts that 31% population were
having MPCE of less than Rs 380 (US$ 9) in rural areas and 20 % population were have MPCE of less than
53
Rs. 500 ( US$ 12) in urban areas ( Fig 26). The estimated Gini ratio  indicates significant inequity in the
MPCE among different stratum/ group of population in majority of states.  Thus strong inequity exists in the
MPCE among communities as well as regions.
SECTION III:
POVERTY SITUATION
India
Population Below Poverty Line
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
73-74 77-78 1983 87-88 93-94 99-
2000
Years
% Peo p le Combined Rural Urban
India
 Monthly PerCapita Consumer Expenditure
Jan- Dec, 2003
3
28.3
29.7
24.4
6.4
8.2
2.6
17.6
28.3
35.7
7.3 8.5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Less
than
225
225-
380
380-
525
525-
775
775-
950
Above
950
MPCE In Rs
P er c en t P o p u l a ti o n
Rural
Urban
Fig. 24 Fig. 25
18
Source: Planning Commission 2002
Source: NSSO 59th Round 2003-2004India
Growth In Employment
(1999-2000)
1.3
2.4
1.6 1.6
2.6
1.9
0.8 0.8
0.9
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Rural Urban Combined
Percent
Persons Male Female
 India
Percent Labour Force
(1999-2000)
66.2
51.1
61.8
85.4
78.6
83.5
45.6
20.9
38.8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Rural Urban Combined
P e r c e n t
Persons Male Female
India
Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure in Rs.
567
520
415
626
781
422
556
981
455
584
398
886
570
609
509
538
554
1065
875
674
1046
1141
888
960
1300
1029
1166
832
1250
912
1087
786
991
1022
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharastra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
ALL INDIA
MPCE -RURAL MPCE- URBAN
Fig. 26
Fig. 27 Fig. 28
19
Source: NSSO 59th Round 2003-2004
Source: Planning Commission 2002 Source: Planning Commission 2002Attempts to curb child labour in India are failing miserably as poverty and social ignorance continue to drive
children to work. The States having high incidence of poverty have also high magnitude and proportion of
our-of-school children and child labour. Eighty three percent of the poor people are concentrated in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam.
Significantly 84 percent of Out-of-school children (6-11 years-NSSO 55th Round) and 72 percent of child
workers aged 5-14 years (Official Census data-2001) are also concentrated in these eight states ( Fig 31-
32).  A close association (positive Correlation of 0.7325 and 0.4563 at 0.05 percent of significance) was
found between Poverty incidence with percent out-of-school children and Percent child workers respectively
among the states of India. (Refer Map 2 and 3)
According to the empirical study (Refer Fig.29-30 and 33- 34 )
Ÿ Households with “Always food deficit at home” (proxy indicator for poverty) also recoded high proportion
of child workers, out of school children and dropout rates from schools as compared to the households
having “Break-Even or Surplus food at homes”.
Ÿ The response of the parents for sending children to work and “problems faced by parent if child stops
work” again reinforces the poverty as one of the major cause for sending children to work. About 70%
and 50% parental responses indicate that children are pushed to work in order to maintain income
levels for sustenance and survival of the families, in the absence of appropriate wages for adults and
seasonality of work respectively. This supports the assertion that poverty is the key reason for
perpetuation of child labor. However on the other hand child labor is the primary cause of poverty, as it
pushes children early to premature work thereby denying children the opportunity to acquire the
education and skills they need to obtain decent work and incomes as adults. The links are mostly
straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the
principal common grounds. Even the latest ILO study reveals that children only earn 20 percent income
of an adult earning, while cost-benefit analysis for educating a child works out seven times returns.
Ÿ The perceived cause underlying the phenomena of child labour include poverty and unemployment,
distress migration and general lack of interest in education due to poor quality of education. The study
results also indicate that general tendency is to replace adult labour by the child labour due to lower
wages. This is corroborated with a significant decline in  labour force participation rate
Map No. 3
SECTION IV:
CHILD LABOUR- HUMAN
DEPRIVATION LINKAGES
20
Map No. 2
INDIA
Poverty Incidence (Percent Population) 1999-2000
INDIA
Percent Children our of school (6-11 years) 1999-2000
Source: Planning Commission Source: NSSO, 55th Round 1999-2000Poverty Rates and Percent Child Workers 2000 and 2001
15.77
36.09
42.6
42.6
14.07
8.74
7.63
20.04
3.48
12.72
37.43
25.02
47.15
6.16
15.28
21.12
31.15
27.02
21.67
26.1
7.7
5.07
4.68
6.97
4.28
4.78
8.14
6.91
6.62
0.47
6.71
3.54
4.37
3.23
8.25
3.61
4.04
4.5
1.34
5
0 10 20 30 40 50
AP
Assam
Bihar
Chatisgarh
Gujarat
Haryana
HP
Karnataka
J&K
Kerala
MP
Maharastra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
UP
W.Bengal
Pondi.
India
Percent
Percent Poverty All Workers
Poverty Rates and Percent Children Out of Schools  (6-11 years)
(1999-2000)
15.77
36.09
42.6
42.6
14.07
8.74
7.63
20.04
3.48
12.72
37.43
25.02
47.15
6.16
15.28
21.12
31.15
27.02
21.67
26.1
18
20
43
34
14
16
5
17
17
5
27
11
25
11
24
7
25
22
3
18
0 10 20 30 40 50
AP
Assam
Bihar
Chatisgarh
Gujarat
Haryana
HP
Karnataka
J&K
Kerala
MP
Maharastra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
UP
W.Bengal
Pondi.
India
Percent
 Percent Poverty Out of Schools
Food Security and School Enrolment and Dropout Rates
30.7
12.8
5.6
2.5
69.3
87.2
94.4
97.5
15.6
6.8
2
1.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Always Deficit
Sometimes Deficit
Break-even
Surplus
Percent
Percent Children Never Enrolled Percent children Enrolled
Percent Drop-out
Fig. 29
Percent Child Labour
30.3
13.6
4
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Always Deficit
Sometimes Deficit
Break-even
Surplus
Fig. 30
Fig. 31 Fig. 32
Problems If Child Stops Work (Parents Response)
35.9
15.1
9.4
15.9
10.7
12
0 10 20 30 40
Living standards will fall
Hard to survive
Difficult to run family business
Household work will suffer
Does not matter
Others
Percent
Fig. 33
Reasons for Child Labour
69.4
24.1
7.8
8.7
3.5
6.3
12.8
0 20 40 60 80
For Income Support
Repayment of Loan
Not Successful In Examinations
Unable to bear education expenses
To Run family Business
No Good Schools
Others
Percent
Fig. 34
21
Source:  Sample Survey 2005 Source:  Sample Survey 2005
Source:  Planning Commission 2002 & Census of India2001 Source:  Planning Commission 2002 & NSSO 55th Round 1999-2000
Source:  Sample Survey 2005 Source:  Sample Survey 200522
Multivariate Analysis:
Results and Analysis:
To assess the independent contribution of different set of phenomena on child labour, multivariate analysis
54
was worked out for the field data collected from the sample survey.  All households having children aged 5-
14 years were considered for the analysis. The size of sample was 683 households. The independent
variables used in the study were
ŸChild Labour: Whether child aged below 14 years worked for more than three hours in a day at the
reference day for the last week. 5-9 years: 1, 10-12 years 2, 12-14 years 3.
ŸChild education, years of schooling completed (Never Schooled 1, 1-5 years of schooling 2, 5+ years of
schooling 3)
ŸMothers Education level: completed (Never Schooled 1, 1-5 years of schooling 2, 5+ years of schooling 3.
ŸFathers Education Level completed (Never Schooled 1, 1-5 years of schooling 2, 5+ years of schooling 3.
ŸMonthly Education Cost:  Nil 1, Up to Rs 100, Above Rs 100 3
ŸLevel of food deficit at home : Always deficit 1, Somewhat Deficit 2,  Sufficient 3
ŸEver faced displacement from original home or current stay place for work, natural calamity, others. From
original home 1, No displacement 2
ŸPercent adults unemployed in family during last 3 months 1, for last 3-6 month 2, for more than one year 3.
ŸFamily indebtedness level: (Nil 1, up to Rs. 10000 2, Above Rs 10,000 3)
ŸLand Ownership: Landless 1, Marginal land up to 100 decimals 2, Above 100 decimals 3
To assess the relative importance all the above selected multivariate logistic regression analysis was
considered with the whole set of explanatory variables. The regression model adopted in this study was
55
from (Menard, 1995; Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1989)  ; to identify the best model a stepwise approach was
adopted and the model was selected by a combination of forward selection and backward elimination. Odd
ratios of each of the regression coefficients were calculated to predict the child labour. The probability of
particular level of child education and level of food deficit at home resulting in a child participating in the
labour force was also calculated.
The analysis identified 1278 children from the sample indicated that children were either only students
(45%) , some were both workers as well as students ( 23%) , only workers (27%)  and neither workers nor
school going ( 5%).
Multivariate logistic regression analysis was employed to under stand the relative importance of the
educational and other socio-economic variables. Of the 10 indicators selected, three indicators (namely,
displacements, indebtedness and monthly education cost) were eliminated and the following variables
were included. The regression coefficients of the best model are displayed in the (Table No. 5)
The study suggests that combination of factors work together for prevalence of child labour. The factors
identified through the multivariate analysis were education deprivation of the child and parents, food deficit
at home, unemployment status of any family member for more than 6 months and families with no or less
land. Therefore the elimination of child labour requires multi pronged strategy of making schools
accessible, providing quality education in schools, attacking food deficit scenario at home through poverty
56
alleviation programmes and providing employment to adults.  The probability of children with particular
characteristics participation in labour force was calculated. From the different combination of socioeconomic variables, the probability of child working ranged from 0.34 to 0.87. The probability of child aged
10+ years, with no schooling for mother and father, and having deficit food status and adult unemployed for
more than 6 months with no land was as high as 87 percent. With the change in the combinations of socioeconomic variables, the probability of existence of child labour decreased and varied substantially. The
result suggested that there might be some other socio-economic characteristics which need to be explored
and included in the analysis to determine increased probability of participation in the labour force.
The results suggest that the presence of child labour is a complex phenomenon, related to multiple issues
and situations. It is a cause and consequence of vulnerabilities- poverty (food deficit at home), illiteracy of
child, higher age children out-of-school, illiteracy of their parents, adult unemployment and non availability
of agricultural land for livelihood opportunities.23
The study on child labour, elementary education and poverty situation in India depicts the following results
and outcomes.
India has already missed the gender parity target and target of covering all children aged 6-14 years in
schools by 2005. Access, reach and gender parity deficit in schooling is observed, in the most populated
states of Bihar, Uttar Padesh, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Rajasthan.
Sixty-five million children aged 6-14 years were not attending any educational institutions in India,
(Census- 2001, released in 2005) which were much higher than the education department estimates of
25 million children (MHRD- 2002 data). This has made the entire claim of the education plans under the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All) out of sync with the reality. It is therefore important that the
government brings out a new realistic road map addressing 65 million children out of school instead of
the 25 million on which the road map was developed earlier.
The states share of providing 25 per cent funds during the tenth plan (2002-07) and 50 per cent funds
after the tenth plan, in addition to the existing allocations for elementary education, may not be actually
achievable, in view of the tight financial position of some of the poor states. Hence sustainability of SSA
may not be possible without providing more financial support to the poor state.
The education (primary and high together) budget was 4.2% of the total GDP in 2003, which is still low in
view of the expected norm of 6 percent of GDP. Again education budget was 14.6 per cent of the total
budget for all other sectors, which is again on a lower side, keeping in view the magnitude of illiteracy
rate and out-of school children. Annual public expenditure per student was US$ 44, which works out as
8.5 percent of per capita GDP. This is lower than the average of 10-12 percent of per capita GDP among
low-income countries. Contrary to the belief that elementary education is free in India, the study
revealed some private expenditure on elementary education from parents. The allocation on
elementary educations needs substantial increase in the overall education budget especially for
primary and elementary education.
The SSA experiment of recruiting para-teachers (teachers without adequate qualification and training)
to fill the gap of student/teacher ratio merits some exploration before it is universally adopted. The
envisaged salary compensation for the para-teacher (US$ 40-45 per month) may not be sufficient to
generate appropriate interest in them to inculcate quality teaching in the schools as they will be always
on look out for another job and the amount spent on their training will be not utilized for teaching
children...
The SSA programme has stipulated 33 per cent grants for civil works across the country, which seems to
be very low in the case of some states, keeping in view the existing number of out-of-school children and
existing school building and classrooms. The existing school building, classrooms and other
infrastructure in the states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa are unable to cope with the demand.
Current reality is that the 5 grades of a primary school are crammed into 2 or 3 class-rooms with
inevitable consequences for class-room environment and teacher-student interaction, with the result
classrooms are highly congested, crammed  with no room space. In case of such states more funds
should be made available for construction of new schools and classrooms.
Accountability of teachers to improve the quality needs direct involvement of community. Capacity
building of the school management committee needs to be up scaled in order to prepare them for
undertaking the task of monitoring, supervision and preparing educational plans as envisaged in the
SSA. Currently very little inputs are provided by the community in plan formulations and supervision.
Thus community ownership of schools is not visible as envisaged in the SSA.
Elementary Education Issues:
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
SECTION V:
SUMMING UP, RESULTS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS24
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
The increase in number of schools is being outpaced by increase in the number of habitations and the
school going child population. With the result several states depicted lower schools per villages/
habitation as well as very high threshold of population per primary and upper primary school. Thus filling
the gap of access and reach deficit across the country would require additional financial budgets for
construction of new schools and classroom.
The Net Enrolment Rates (NER) of 73 per cent and Gender Parity Rate (GPI) of 0.93 shows significant
improvement have been made, but regional gaps in these rates exhibits equity deficit, especially in the
most populous states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. India has already missed the target of
gender parity in enrolments by 2005. It calls for specific efforts of providing access to girls within their
habitation as well as employing lady teachers in view of culture specific attitudes.
Shortage of lady teachers has reflected in lower Gender Parity Enrolment Rates in the state of Bihar,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Lack of toilet facilities especially separate toilet services for girls have affected GPI rates, as states with
lesser GPI rates also recorded less percent of schools with toilet facilities. This point was further
reinforced through the field observations.
There is an increasing necessity for a shift of paradigm focus to question of quality in school education.
The result of poor quality of education explains high dropouts, low retention, transition and survival
rates in government school in majority of states across the country.
On an average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of
children aged 10-14 years dropped-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to
awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of
schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family
livelihoods. The empirical field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14
years.
The co-efficient of correlation index suggests improved access, infrastructure development,
recruitment of lady teachers and availability of trained teachers are correlated with better NER, GPI,
retention rates and attendance rates of students.
Even the official data has admitted that the magnitude of child labour has increased from 11.59 million
in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001 (Census 2001). However unofficial sources claim between 25 to 30
million child workers, as significant number of child workers in domestic and agriculture sector are not
covered in the census.
Sixty-five million children aged 6-14 years were not attending any educational institutions in India,
(Census- 2001, released in 2005) which were much higher than the education department estimates of
25 million children (MHRD- 2002 data).
The prosecution and conviction rates in contravention of Child Labour Act-1986 were few pointing out
poor implementation of the act, due to administrative lapses and lacunae in the Act.
The National Child Labour Project (NCLP) and the INDUS- USDOL project for supporting released child
labourers from work has very little synergy and coordination at the grassroots level with other welfare
and poverty alleviation programmes. In the absence of such synergy, the enrolled children in the special
schools do not complete full cycle of elementary education. Thus providing schooling without
integrating other poverty alleviation programmes for the extreme poor families have not been
successful.  Moreover, the scale of coverage of both the NCLP and the INDUS-USDOL project and the
magnitude of child labour are mismatch and needs substantial scaling up.
The quality of education and vocational training provided in majority of the NCLP special schools is
below standard, due to limited monitoring either from labour department or from education
department. The education component should be monitored by the education department for
improving quality of education.
On an average 20-25 percent aged 7-10 years were not attending schools and a large proportion of
Child Labour Issues:25
children aged 10-14 years drop-out of schools. The results strengthen the observation that due to
awareness children get enrolled in the schools at ages 7 -10 years, but eventually they drop out of
schools either due to poor education quality or due to pressure from parents to work and sustain family
livelihoods. The empirical field survey results also depict high drop out rates in the ages between 10-14
years.
According to the Planning Commission 260 million people (26% of population) still live below the poverty
line in India. Eighty three percent of these poor people are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam. Significantly 84 percent of Outof-school children (6-11 years) and 72 percent of child workers aged 5-14 years are also concentrated in
these eight states.  A close association (positive Correlation of 0.7325 and 0.4563) was found between
Poverty incidence with percent out-of-school children and Percent child workers respectively among the
states of India.
The average monthly per capita consumer expenditure (MPCE) is not only very low, US$ 13 in rural areas
and US$ 24 in urban areas, but in-equity also exists in the MPCE, as the bottom 20% population have
less than US$ 9 and US $12, MPCE in rural and urban areas respectively.
Labour force participation declined for both males and females during 1983 to 1999-2000 and hence
employment rates have declined for both gender groups across rural and urban areas but the decline
was more for women in rural areas. Given the increase in the labour force, and a decline in the growth of
employment in the nineties the incidence of unemployment has increased significantly.
The study suggests that combination of factors work together for prevalence of child labour. The factors
identified through the multivariate analysis were education deprivation of the child and parents, food
deficit at home, unemployment status of any family member for more than 6 months and families with
no or less land. These variables explained 87% presence of child labour through the multivariate
analysis. Therefore the elimination of child labour requires multi pronged strategy of making schools
accessible, providing quality education in schools, attacking food deficit scenario at home through
poverty alleviation programmes and providing employment to adults. The strict compliance and
enforcement of child labour laws and other labour laws will automatically encourage adult employment
along with provision of minimum stipulated wages.
The empirical study reflected households with “Always food deficit at home” (proxy indicator for poverty)
also recoded high proportion of child workers, out of school children and dropout rates from schools as
compared to the households having “Break-Even or Surplus food at homes”.
The response of the parents for sending children to work and “problems faced by parent if child stops
work” again reinforces the poverty as one of the major cause for sending children to work. About 70%
and 50% parental responses indicate that children are pushed to work in order to maintain income
levels for sustenance and survival of the families, in the absence of appropriate wages for adults and
seasonality of work respectively. This supports the assertion that poverty is the key reason for
perpetuation of child labor. However on the other hand child labor is the primary cause of poverty, as it
pushes children early to premature work thereby denying children the opportunity to acquire the
education and skills they need to obtain decent work and incomes as adults. The links are mostly
straightforward and tend to run both ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the
principal common grounds. Even the latest ILO study reveals that children only earn 20 percent income
of an adult earning, while cost-benefit analysis for educating a child works out seven times returns.
For International Community:
MDGs and child labor are intimately linked. The links are mostly straightforward and tend to run both
ways. Poverty and lack of education provision constitute the principal common grounds. Indeed, it is
Poverty, labour force and unemployment Issues:
Child Labour- Human Deprivation Linkages:
Recommendations:
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ26
poverty associated with social injustice and social exclusion that is most closely related to child labor.
The absence of child labor from the MDG framework is a regrettable omission that needs to be corrected
with a sense of urgency if the intent is to achieve the MDGs.
Achieving the MDG and Dakar goals for poverty alleviation and universalization of primary and
elementary education within the target time, would require scaling up of public investments, capacity
building, domestic resource mobilization, and official development assistance. In view of the need for
resource mobilization, high-income countries should increase official development assistance (ODA) to
support the Millennium Development Goals, particularly in low-income countries, with improved ODA
quality (including aid that is harmonized, predictable, and largely in the form of grants-based budget
support). Each donor should reach 0.7 percent no later than 2015 to support the Goals and other
development assistance priorities.
International donors should identify more MDG "fast-track" countries for a rapid scale-up of official
development assistance (ODA) in view of recognizing that many countries including India are already in
a position for a massive scale-up on the basis of their good governance and absorptive capacity.
Organizations that fund development projects in India, including the World Bank, should routinely
include in all contracts a clause, enforceable by canceling the project, requiring compliance with
international labor standards or domestic labor laws, whichever are higher. The World Bank should
conduct a comprehensive review of all of its projects in India to determine whether child labor is in any
way involved, directly or indirectly, and make the results public.
Bodies such as the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), U.S. Department
of Labor, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), U.N. agencies, and others that fund
projects aimed at reducing child labour should insist that local governments in the areas where their
projects operate enforce the child and bonded labour laws, and should contribute resources for capacity
building, and technical assistance to local governments to adequately enforce those laws.
For Government of India:
Incorporate multi-pronged approach by crafting effective synergy and coordination process between
central and state governments departments towards child labour elimination efforts. The central and
state governments should internalize the linking up processes of poverty alleviation, health support and
elementary education in a unified manner to eliminate child labour supply and demand aspects
effectively.
Develop District Poverty Initiative Programmes (DPIP) for all backward districts having integrated
component of livelihood strategies, focusing most vulnerable rural communities, especially child labour
and their families. The DPIP should be a community participatory project in line with the existing DPIP
projects in Andhra Pradesh state.
The SSA would require scaling up of public investments/ budgets through domestic resource
mobilization and official development assistance for improving school infrastructure, quality of
teaching and school environments, to ensure full implementation of newly incorporated Article 21-A  of
the constitution, providing free and compulsory quality education to all children below 14 years.
Review of the SSA and incorporate more budgetary allocations, in view of the 65 million out-of-school
children aged 6-14 years as estimated by the Census- 2001. The central government should ensure the
th
sustainability of SSA after the 10 Plan in view of the stipulated mandatory 50% contributions required
from the state governments.
The government of India should take all possible steps to enforce the child labor and bonded labour
laws. The child labour Act-1986 requires amendments to incorporate the requirements that all
employers should have the onus to prove that any worker employed is above 14 years of age and the
failure to have adequate proof should constitute a separate violation of the Act.
Ratify ILO Convention No. 138 concerning the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, ILO
Convention No. 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst
Forms of Child Labour.
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
ŸAndhra Pradesh 1.93 186 87 69 0.98 38
Assam 1.03 167 86 74 0.96 34
Bihar 0.83 442 76 68 0.76 17
Chhatisgarh 0.88 133 108 90 0.94 25
Gujarat 1.32 247 91 69 0.87 47
H.P. 0.62 84 111 86 0.92 42
Haryana 0.81 390 52 42 0.91 42
Jharkhand 0.6 286 76 62 0.84 22
Karnataka 0.98 195 106 84 0.94 43
Kerela 2.96 416 89 72 0.97 71
M.P. 0.89 163 94 73 0.9 29
Maharashtra 1.1 212 102 84 0.91 43
Meghalaya 0.91 93 98 67 1.03 51
Mizoram 1.47 65 128 102 0.94 48
Nagaland 1.38 226 104 93 0.94 38
Orissa 0.74 164 109 86 0.92 31
Punjab 0.85 402 0.93
Rajasthan 1.44 172 88 62 0.86 24
Sikkim 1.58 148 128 81 0.97 40
Tamil Nadu 1.51 191 106 86 0.93 68
Tripura 2.88 229 132 118 0.92 19
Uttar Pradesh 0.97 314 85 79 0.9 31
Uttranchal 0.82 112 90 76 0.97 51
W. Bengal 0.87 297 103 82 0.98 24
India 1.15 242 96 73 0.93 36
Table No. 1A
India
 Elementary Education Indicators- 2004
Access  Enrollment  Gender
Schools/Village  Children/Village  GER  NER  GPI
%Female
Teachers
State
Source: District Information on School Education (DISE), NIEPA,MHRD-2004
27Andhra Pradesh 39 51 27 31 63 90
Assam 36 60 25 18 96 36 48
Bihar 92 79 13 74 51 35 34
Chhatisgarh 33 80 9 26 80 64
Gujarat 41 64 32 38 70 43 84
H.P. 12 86 28 14 99 91
Haryana 48 91 71 34 77 64 75
Jharkhand 64 80 9 58 80 41 34
Karnataka 38 66 27 36 90 63 95
Kerela 32 90 77 27 97 99 103
M.P. 48 82 24 31 64 69 81
Maharashtra 41 74 32 34 95 67 86
Meghalaya 21 39 17 19 37
Mizoram 20 67 36 17 57
Nagaland 41 37 28 26 59
Orissa 43 73 22 43 77 54 61
Punjab 34 77 50 31
Rajasthan 34 70 35 32 68 43
Sikkim 19 63 82 17 65
Tamil Nadu 39 92 41 43 89 90 99
Tripura 40 68 28 21 67
Uttar Pradesh 67 95 66 67 62 51 54
Uttranchal 23 70 56 22 87 60
W. Bengal 55 74 50 55 78 47 64
India 46 78 36 39 76 58 71
Table No. 1B
India
Education Indicators  Infrastructure and Quality  2004
State
Source: District Information on School Education (DISE), NIEPA,MHRD-2004
Infrastructure  Quality
SCR
Drinking
Water
Toilet  PTR
Transition
Rate
Retention
Rate
Survival
Rate
28Table No. 2
Co-efficient of Correlation values
      2        3         4          5            6          7        8        9       10      11      12    13
1 0.125 -0.194 0.567 0.456 0.543 0.289 -0.291 0.132 0.718 0.366 -0.092 0.299
2 0.673 -0.592 -0.396 -0.430 -0.112 0.608 -0.326 0.013 0.006 0.406 0.314
3 -0.517 -0.266 -0.693 -0.521 0.914 -0.688 -0.554 -0.324 0.300 -0.190
4 0.881 0.354 0.047 -0.457 0.386 0.242 0.163 -0.258 -0.065
5 -0.209 -0.063 -0.280 0.356 0.166 0.14 -0.150 -0.169
6 0.683 -0.625 0.550 0.470 0.277 -0.395 0.697
7 -0.372 0.579 0.835 0.584 0.041 0.441
8 -0.620 -0.415 -0.255 0.405 -0.088
9 0.471 0.741 0.074 0.171
10 0.832 0.543 0.538
11 0.278 0.307
12 0.324
Sl.
No
Indicators
1. Primary School Per Village
2. Children Aged 5-14 Per Primary/UP
3. Student Classroom Ratio
4. GER (Primary Level)
5. NER (Primary Level
6. Gender Parity Enrollment Index
7. % Female Teacher (Primary Schools)
8. Pupil Teacher Ratio (Primary + UP)
9. Transition Rate
10. Retention Rate
11. Survival Rate
12. % Schools Having Drinking Water
13. % Schools Having Toilet Facility
29Andhra Pradesh 1661940 1363339 9.98 7.7 -2.28
Arunachal Pradesh  12,395 18482 5.65 6.06 0.41
Assam 327598 351416 5.46 5.07 -0.39
Bihar 942,245 1117500 3.99 4.68 0.69
Chattisgarh 364572 6.96 6.96
Delhi 27351 41899 1.27 1.35 0.08
Goa 4656 4138 1.95 1.82 -0.13
Gujarat 523585 485530 5.26 4.28 -0.98
Haryana 109,691 253491 2.55 4.78 2.23
Himachal Pradesh 56438 107774 4.55 8.14 3.59
Jammu & Kashmir 175630 6.62 6.62
Jharkhand 407200 5.47 5.47
Karnataka 976247 822665 8.81 6.91 -1.90
Kerela 34800 26156 0.58 0.47 -0.11
Madhya Pradesh 1352563 1065259 8.08 6.71 -1.37
Maharastra 1068418 764075 5.73 3.54 -2.19
Orissa 452394 377594 5.87 4.37 -1.50
Punjab 142,868 177268 3.04 3.23 0.19
Rajasthan 774199 1262570 6.46 8.25 1.79
Sikkim 5598 16457 5.18 12.04 6.86
Tamilnadu 578,889 418801 4.83 3.61 -1.22
Tripura 16478 21756 2.29 2.79 0.50
Uttar Pradesh 1410086 1927997 3.81 4.04 0.23
Uttranchal 70183 3.24 3.24
West Bengal 711691 857087 4.16 4.5 0.34
INDIA 11285349 12666377 5.37 5 -0.37
Table No. 3
Child Labour Population, 1991-2001
State
Source: Census of India  Tables on Workers-2001
Child Workers
 1991
Child Workers
 2001
% Workers
 1991
% Workers
 2001
Change
1991 - 2001
30Table No. 4
INDIA
Education, Child Labour Elimination Projects
Supported by the World Bank 1990-2005
Second District Primary Education Project - 1996 Credit 260 Education 35 43 22
Uttar Pradesh Second Education Basic Project- 1997 Credit 59 Education 32 68
Third District Primary Education Project - 1997 Credit 152 Education 52 38 10
Rajasthan District Primary Education Project- 1999 Credit 86 Education 20 45 35
Uttar Pradesh Third District Education Project-1999 Credit 182 Education 37 30 33
Elementary Education - 2004 Credit 500 Elem. Education
All Education Projects 1239
Project
Loan/
Credit/
Grant
Amount
US$
Million
Sector
Percent Amount
stipulated
1 2 3
Source: The World Bank Project Paper.
1: Improving Physical Access 2: Supporting learning outcomes 3: Supporting Policy Change
Table No. 5
Regression Coefficients and odd ratios
Variable
Regression
Coefficient
Standard
Error
Odd
Ratios
Age
5-9 Years
10-12 Years
12-14 Years
Child Education
No Schooling
1-5 years
5+ years
Mothers Education
No Schooling
1-5 years
5+ years
Fathers Schooling
No Schooling
1-5 years
5+ years
Food deficit
Always deficit
Somewhat Deficit
Sufficient
Adult Employed
Last 3 months
3-6 months
6+Months
Land Ownership
Landless
Up to 100
Above 100
0.00
0.67***
0.77***
0.00
- 0.25***
- 0.62***
0.00
- 0.28**
- 0.48**
0.00
- 0.18*
-0.58***
0.00
- 0.18*
- 0.43***
0.00
0.36***
0.77***
0.00
-0.09
-0.44***
-
0.06
0.04
-
0.08
0.14
-
0.11
0.17
-
0.09
0.12
-
0.07
0.18
-
0.09
0.05
-
0.07
0.11
1.00
1.76
2.16
1.00
0.78
0.52
1.0
0.79
0.64
1.0
0.86
0.54
1.0
0.86
0.23
1.0
1.56
1.98
1.0
0.65
0.43
31REFERENCES
AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. The World Bank document, prepared for providing loan for Elementary Education, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan  - 2004
2. The Millennium Development Goal Report  2005, United Nations, New York, 2005.
3. The World Bank, Attaining Millennium Development Goals in India, Role of Public policy and service delivery,
Human Development Unit , South Asia Region, June 2004
4. Planning Commission, Government of India, Tenth Plan, Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas, 2002.
5.  The National Rural Employment Act envisages, providing 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to one family
member of rural households in 200 backward districts of India. Initially 200 districts will be covered which
including 150 districts now under the food for work programme. The scheme would be extended to all 600 districts
in five years. The Bill also provides for unemployment allowance if the job, under the scheme, is not provided. The
minimum daily wage has been fixed at Rs 60 per day ( $1.45 )
6. The World Bank, Attaining Millennium Development Goals in India, Role of Public policy and service delivery,
Human Development Unit , South Asia Region, June 2004
7. Report on the Evaluation of UNESCO's E-9 Initiative, December 2003, pg.32
8. Ibid.
9. The index should measures overall progress towards EFA, six goals. In practice, however, this is difficult, as Goal 3
learning and life-skills programmes  is not yet conducive to quantitative measurement. For rather different
reasons, ECCE cannot easily be incorporated at present, because the data are insufficiently standardized across
countries, and they are, in any case, available for only a small minority of states. Accordingly, an EDI has been
designed which incorporates indicators for the four goals of UPE, adult literacy, gender parity and the quality of
education. One indicator has been included as a proxy measure for each of these four EDI components. This is in
accordance with the principle of considering each goal to be equally important and, thus, of giving the same weight
to each of the index constituents. So the EDI value for a particular country is the arithmetical mean of the observed
values for each of its different constituents. As each of its constituents is percentages, its value can vary from 0 to
1. The closer it is to its maximum value, the less distance a country is from the goal and the greater its EFA
achievement.
10. UNESCO , EFA Monitoring Report 2006.
11. A School Report of 14 Developing Countries in Asia Pacific, published by Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult
Education and Global Campaign for Education, 2005.
12. Operation Blackboard a centrally sponsored scheme initiated in 1987 and was a major initiative to improve the
teacher/ pupil ratio as it provided second teacher to all single teacher primary schools.
13. DPEP is a World Bank supported programme. It was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme in 1994 in 42
districts of seven states (Assam, Haryana, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Tamil Nadu) with
the aim of providing access to primary education for all children, reducing primary dropout rates to less than 10 per
cent, increasing learning achievements of primary school students by at least 25 per cent and reducing gender
and social gaps to less than 5 per cent. The programme components include construction of classrooms and new
schools opening of Alternative Schooling Centers, appointment of new teachers, setting up early childhood
education centers, strengthening of State Councils of Educational Research and Training (SCERTs) / District
Institute of Educational Training (DIETs), setting up of Block Resource Centers / Cluster Resource Centers, teacher
training, development of Teaching Learning Material, special interventions for education of girls, SC/ST, working
children etc. Initiatives for providing integrated education to disabled children and distance education for teacher
training have also been incorporated in the DPEP Scheme. At its peak, the programme was being implemented in
272 districts of 18 States and it is now continuing in 129 districts of nine States. The programme is in the last
phase and will be merged with the SSA programme after its completion period in 2007. It has been funded jointly
by the World Bank, European Commission (EC), UK Department of International Development (DFID), Government
of Netherlands and UNICEF. DPEP is an externally aided project, with 85 per cent of the project cost being met by
the Government of India and the remaining 15 per cent shared by the concerned State Government. The
Government of India share is resourced through external assistance. External Assistance of about Rs. 69,380
million, comprising Rs. 51,370 million as credit from IDA and Rs. 180,00 million as grant from EC/DFID/UNICEF/
Netherlands has been tied up for DPEP.
14. The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), popularly known as the Mid-Day
Meal (MDM) Scheme, was launched on August 15, 1995, with the objective of giving a boost to Universalization of
32Primary Education through improvements in the nutritional status of students in primary classes of Government,
local body and Government-aided schools. The programme was extended to children studying in Education
Guarantee Schools (EGS) and other alternative learning centers in October 2002. Central support was provided by
way of supply of free food grains through the Food Corporation of India @ 100 gm per child per school day where
cooked meals were served, and @ 3 kg per student per month where food grains were distributed. Though all
States were expected to move rapidly towards provision of cooked meals under the programme, many States were
facing difficulty in providing cooked meals to children due to financial constraints. To overcome this problem and in
pursuance of policy pronouncements made in the President's address to Parliament in June 2004 and Finance
Minister's Budget Speech 2004-05, the scheme has been revised with effect from September 2004. Under the
revised Scheme, the Central Government is providing assistance to the States to meet the cooking cost also @ Re.
1 per child, per school day. Over and above the Budget provision of Rs. 16,750 million for the scheme for 2004-05,
a sum of Rs. 12, 320 million has been provided through the First Supplementary Estimates of 2004-05 as
Additional Central Assistance to States to meet cooking costs. The programme is benefiting about 110 million
primary school children in the country. A National-level Steering-cum-Monitoring Committee (NSMC) has been
constituted to oversee management and monitoring of the programme at the national level, and State
Governments have been requested to constitute similar committees at State, district and block levels to ensure
smooth implementation of the programme with good quality.
15. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Teacher Education was launched in 1987-88 to create an institutional
infrastructure to provide academic and technical resource support for continuous education and training of
school teachers. District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) set up under the Scheme provide academic
resource support to formal and non-formal elementary school teachers, Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and
Institutes of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs) have been given the responsibility of organising pre-service and
in-service training of secondary school teachers. IASEs are also expected to conduct programmes for the
preparation of elementary school teacher educators. The Scheme has been revised for the Tenth Plan and
guidelines of the revised Scheme were issued to States in January 2004, with emphasis on operationalising
sanctioned DIETs, CTEs and IASEs in an optimum manner, and on improving the quality of teacher training
programmes in them. Since the inception of the Scheme in 1987-88, a total of 550 DIETs/DRCs and 131
CTEs/IASEs have been sanctioned/approved up to December 2004.
16. The objective of KGBV is to ensure access and quality education to the girls of disadvantaged groups of society by
setting up 750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level for a minimum of 50 girls, belonging
predominantly to the scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, other backward castes and minorities in difficult areas. A
total of 715 KGBVs have been approved during 2004-05. In view of the targeted nature of the scheme, 75% girls
from SC, ST, OBC or minority communities would be accorded priority for enrolment in such residential schools.
Established NGOs and other non-profit making bodies will be involved in the running of the schools, wherever
possible. The scheme will be implemented by State Governments through the Mahila Samakhya (MS) Society in
MS states and through the SSA society in case of other states.  The scheme is being implemented in the States of
Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Jammu
and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. A provision of Rs. 4,890 million has been made for the
Tenth Plan and Annual plan allocation for the year 2004-05 is Rs. 1,000 million. Nearly 715 KGBVs have been
approved by Department of Elementary Education and Literacy involving an amount of Rs. 1,675 million for the
Year 2004-05.
17. Janshala Programme was a joint venture of United Nations and Government of India, Primary Education
Department, with the major aim of involving community participation in formal schooling system in selected
districts of India. It promoted a constant interaction between the literacy functionaries like education
administration of the state, educators and the members of the beneficiary community in regular formal meetings.
Such interactions or formal meetings may, however, be too soft a mechanism for the effective implementation of
the literacy/ educational projects, but as a preliminary step towards more effective forms of community
participation, this is quite desirable and effective approach.  Janshala programme has empowered the community
by addressing to its legitimate organizational framework like monitoring of formal schools by a Committee
consisting of education committee member selected by the people. The essence of the programme is not to shift
communities' point of dependence from administration to NGOs but to empower the community directly to seek
their due entitlements. Janshala programme clearly established a link between the administration, community,
NGOs and other civil society to operate together synergistically. Major aim of Janshala was to create community
empowerment for ensuring universal participation of children and better school management, capacity building of
teacher's empowerment and quality improvement in education Reach difficult groups of children, especially girls
among them and ensure proper management and the level of decentralisation:
18. World Bank document prepared for seeking loan from the World Bank for the Elementary Education  2004
19. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan document, of Government of India, MHRD- 2002
20. Data on government elementary education expenditure were obtained from detailed budget demand documents
of individual states. Although government expenditure on primary education is of interest in this paper, state
33government expenditure in India are available only for the elementary level, comprising the lower primary (grades
1-5) and upper primary (grades 6-8) levels. Note that the state government expenditure data used in this paper
includes expenditure incurred by a state government out of its own revenues as well as central government
allocations to that state.
21. Ministry of Human Resource and Development and National Institute of Education Planning and Administration
EDUCATION FOR ALL, India Report, Year 2000 Assessment. New Delhi.
22. Field observation in Bihar state district Gaya and Madhya Pradesh state district Bhopal and Hoshangabad.
23. The Population threshold was worked out by working ratio of children aged 5-14 years (Census-2001 data) with the
number of primary and upper primary school (DISE- 2004) data. Unfortunately the census data for the states was
not available for age group 6-14 which would have been more appropriate in view of the children being enrolled
from age 6 in classes I.
24. The high thresh hold for Kerala and Haryana can be explained, as these two states have high number of private
primary/ upper primary schools even in rural areas, which is not counted in the DISE data.
25. NIEPA; DISE Data- 2004. The DISE 2004 data is for 25 states and it includes enrollments both in government and
private primary and upper primary schools.
26. Gross Enrolment rate is percent children reported enrolled in class I-V in schools to official children aged 6-11
years.
27. Net Enrolment Rate s to Official Enrollment at primary level aged 6-11 years / Official School age Population in the
Age Group 6-11 Years.
28. NER data from household survey conducted by the NSSO/ Census is considered more accurate that the GER data
from the government schools (DISE information). The DISE information tends to over estimate the enrolment
figures, as children enrolled in the schools at the beginning of the session, due to awareness campaign or
incentive induced strategies, continue to be counted in school enrolments irrespective of their current status of
whether they attend or not attend the schools.
29. The observation that Punjab and Haryana have higher rates of female than male primary enrollment deserves an
explanation. These states actually have a very different form of gender discrimination in schooling. Since these are
rich states, both boys and girls get enrolled in school. However, since there is a growing private sector in these
states, parents tend to enroll their male children in private schools while enrolling their daughters in government
schools. Since school-based administrative data typically only cover enrollment in government institutions, the
boys who are shifted out of the government schools are not counted while the girls attending government schools
are counted. This gives a misleading picture of girls having higher enrollment rates than boys.
30. Ministry of Education Report, (1992), Challenge of Education. - P36.
31. The PROBE Study, (1999), pp.41.
32. UNICEF (1996): Progress of the States
33. Yadav, M.S and Others (2000), EDUCATION FOR ALL, Learner Achievement in Primary Schools, MHRD, GOI and
NIEPA.
34. MHRD Statistics on Education Status of India 2001-02.
35. The Gross Drop-out Rate represent percentage of pupils who drop out from a given grade or cycle or level of
education in a given school year. The method used to calculate Gross Drop-out Rates is known as the Apparent
Cohort Method. There are certain limitations of this method in providing precise estimates, as it does not take into
account the data on repeaters.
36. The NSSO 52nd Round was conducted in 1995-96. The US $ rate is based on current conversion (2005) rate of Rs
43 per US$.
37. The indicators selected for the correlation were, Primary schools per village (Rural areas), Gross Enrolment Rate,
Net Enrolment Rate, Gender Parity Enrolment Index, Per cent lady teachers to total teachers, Per cent schools
having toilet facilities, Per cent schools having drinking water facility, Pupil/ Teacher ratio, Student classroom ratio,
Transition rate, Retention rate and Survival rate
38. The information on children working in informal sectors, or attending schools, who might also be working is difficult
to procure. The collection of reliable data regarding child labour is limited also by the fact that, officially the work
undertaken by children in domestic and informal sectors are excluded from worker's category, as it is difficult to
assess the productive value of such labour. Thus official child labour figures are always at such variance with
statistics quoted by non-governmental agencies. Two main sources of most authentic data on child labour are
Census of India and National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) reports. NSSO 55th Round in 1999-2000 and
Census 2001 presents, age wise workers, which is one the most authentic source of data for working out
magnitude of child workers.
39. The age group of 6-14 years was chosen as this group has constitutional guarantee for free and  compulsory
34education. according to newly incorporated Article 21-A. Information from household surveys like Census and
NSSO refer to children attending schools, irrespective of their enrolment status. On the other hand administrative
school data infer all enrolled children are attending schools, hence household survey data is more authentic and
reliable.
40. Main workers are those workers who are found engaged for production activities for more than six months (more
the 183 days in a year), while marginal workers are those workers who work for less than six months in a year.
41. There is a possibility that some of the child factory workers are not recorded and the number is under-estimated,
since the law prohibits the employment of children in factories.
42. Mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotype are known as hybridization. Hybrid cotton seed
production in a self pollinated crop- a difficult task, especially when a large quantity is to be produced for
commercial production. Unlike other hybrid seeds like paddy and jowar, in cottonseed, cross pollination work has
to be done manually.  Each individual flower bud has to be emasculated and pollinated by hand by a large labour
force. Doak`s method of emasculation of the flower bud is used. This method involves the removal of bracts first
by hand, and then the petals, along with the entire anther-sac whorl, with the nail of the thumb, without damaging
the stigma, style or ovary. Crossing needs to be done as soon as the flowers blossom before the female flowers
bear fruit (and consequently produce non-hybridised or `fake' seeds).
43. Venkateswarlu, D. (2004), Child labour in hybrid cottonseed production in Andhra Pradesh: recent developments,
INDIA COMMITTEE OF THE NETHERLANDS (ICN) THE NETHERLANDS
44. Ibid.
45. V. V. Giri National Institute, (1996): Towards Eliminating Child Labour. NOIDA.
46. The hazardous occupations listed in the Act-1986 are glass factories of Firozabad in (Uttar Pradesh), the  slate
industry in Mandsaur in (Madhya Pradesh) and Markapur in (Andhra Pradesh), the match industry in Sivakasi
(Tamil Nadu), the lock industry at Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh), the diamond polishing industry in Surat (Gujarat), the
brass-ware industry in Moradabad (Uttar Pradesh), the balloon factories of Dahanu (Maharastra), the gem stone
industry in Jaipur (Rajasthan), the carpet industry in Mirzapur- Bhadhoi- Varanasi- Allahabad belt in ( Uttar
Pradesh) and Kashmir Valley in (Jammu and Kashmir) etc;
47. Ministry of Labour, Question-Answer session in Lok Sabha -2003, source: Statistical Data  from Website.
48. I. Kaur:  A Review of World Bank Lending for Children and its bearing on Child Labour. Understanding  Children's
Work  An Interagency Research Cooperation Project, 2002
49. Planning Commission, Government of India, Tenth Plan, and Poverty Alleviation in Rural areas 2002.
50. The United Nations Human Development Index state,  poverty does not only mean low income, low consumption
and low calories intake , it also includes lack of access to essential things required for a decent living: health,
education, economic opportunities, security, cultural liberty and social respect.
51. The incidence of unemployment defined as percentage of persons unemployed in the age group 15 years and
above on the usual principal and subsidiary status to the total number of persons in the labour force
52. National Sample Survey Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of
India, 59th round , Report No. 490 on Household Consumer Expenditure and Employment- unemployment
Situation in India, May 2005.
53. It is not only the average level of expenditure that is important for assessing economic attainments, but it is also
desirable to know how it is distributed across the population in the State or the region among other groups of
MPCE . A State may have high average per capita consumption expenditure only because of high expenditure
levels in the top income deciles of the population. On the other hand, the same average consumption level can be
obtained from a more equitable distribution of expenditure levels.
54. A field survey was conducted in August- September 2005 in sample six villages appropriately selected from
Block/ Mandals of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. For the purpose of this study a sample survey of
625 households from the three states of Bihar (Block Bodh Gaya and Dhobi in Gaya, District); Madhya Pradesh
(Block Sanchi in Raisen district and block Babai in Hoshangabad district) and Andhra Pradesh (Mandal Bhootput
in Mehboobnagar and Mandal Shankerpally in Rangareddi district) were selected. The three states were selected
because of the presence of high proportion of out-of-school children and measures adopted by the state
governments to create conducive condition for universalization of education. Andhra Pradesh state with support
from United Nations agencies and other international agencies took several proactive measures to release
children from work. Madhya Pradesh took lead in developing Education Guarantee Schools (EGS) in 1997 to cover
all out-of-school children as an innovative programme, which was later incorporated in the SSA. Bihar state has
high proportion of out-of-school children due to lack of availability, access and infrastructure in schools. Keeping
these parameters in view the three states were selected for the survey. six villages, one village from each of the
blocks/ mandals were selected randomly for the survey.  Separate samples were drawn from each village.
Considering the variable of interest as dichotomous, a sample size of 125 households from each village was
35calculated with a precision level of 5% and a 95% confidence limit (Cochran, W.G. 1977, Sampling technique,
Singapore, John Wiley and Sons and Kalton. G, 1983, Introduction to Survey Sampling , Sage University Paper
Series on Quantitative Applications in Social sciences, 070035, Newbury Park, CA, Sage ) . A cluster sampling
approach was followed in the survey.  Thus a total of 625 households were selected randomly.
55. Hosmer, D.W & Lemeshow, S (1989): Applied Logistic Regression, John Wiley and Sons, New york.
56. Older children aged 10-12 years were 76% more likely to work and children aged 12-14 were 116 % more likely to
work. Children education were negatively associated with child labour, children educated up to class V and more
than class V were less likely to be employed as child labourers  in the proportion of 22% and 48% respectively.
Similarly mothers and fathers education level was also negatively associated with child labour. Significantly food
status deficit was also negatively associated with the child labour, lower the food status deficit lower was the
chances of child labour and visa versa. Thus food security was closely associated to less child labour. Adult
unemployment was positively associated with the child labour. Higher the period of adult employment higher was
the chance of child labour. Household land ownership was again negatively associated with the child labour.
Children of households having land up to 100 decimals were 35% and with land above 100 decimal 57% less
likely to work than the children's families with no land.
36International Centre on Child Labor and Education
1925 K Street, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20006
Ph.: 202-258-8873
Email: sjoshi@iccle.org
Website: www.iccle.org
Global March Against Child Labour
International Secretariat
E-868, C. R. Park, New Delhi-110 019, India
Ph.: 91 11 51329025 Telefax: 91 11 26278358
Email: info@globalmarch.org
Website: www.globalmarch.org